Three-dimensional modeling in global acoustic propagation

The ocean is nearly transparent for acoustic propagation at low frequencies (u003c100 Hz), leading to the detection of signals (seismic events, volcanoes, and man-made signals) at distances as large as the ocean basin. Historically, basin acoustic modeling has neglected out-of-plane effects and has been performed with the model computed in the range/depth plane for multiple radials following geodesics (Nx2D). Both oceanographic and bathymetric features can lead to out-of-plane effects. In this paper, a summary of computational approaches to this problem will be presented, including vertical-mode, horizontal ray hybrid approaches, and full-3D Parabolic Equation modeling. Out-of-plane effects include refraction and diffraction—which have different effects as well as different approaches to modeling. Experiments where 3D propagation effects were significant will be presented within this context, including Perth-Bermuda (1960), the Heard Island Feasibility Test (1993), and a recent seismic tomography test off the...