Work-Related Impression Formation: Reviewing Parenthood Penalties and Investigating a “Fatherhood Penalty” for Single Fathers

We review the evidence that mothers, compared to childless women or fathers, are discriminated at work ("motherhood penalty") and that fathers may receive "caregiver penalties." We conclude that (implicitly or explicitly) expected family roles appear to determine parenthood penalties. On this basis, we examined penalties for fathers who are only assumed to be primary caregivers. We found "fatherhood penalties" for single fathers compared to married fathers (Experiment 1, N = 343) and compared to singles and single mothers (Experiment 2, N = 142 professionals). We discuss the mixed evidence on work-related perceptions of parents.