Neural reinforcement: re-entering and refining neural dynamics leading to desirable outcomes

•Behavioral reinforcement is neural reinforcement.•We propose a framework where reinforcement acts on neural population dynamics with different time courses.•Reinforcement of cortical activity requires plasticity in cortico-basal ganglia circuits.•Fast reinforcement selects the inputs that permit the re-entrance of the particular cortical population dynamics.•Slower refinement of cortical dynamics permits retrieval of target activity more directly and reliably.