Occurrences of benzalkonium chloride in streams near a pharmaceutical manufacturing complex in Korea and associated ecological risk.

Benzalkonium chloride (BKC) is a commonly used preservative in personal care products and pharmaceutical preparations. However, its ecological risks are not well understood because of lack of monitoring data and ecotoxicological information. In the present study, occurrence of BKC was investigated in the waters near a pharmaceutical manufacturing complex of South Korea and its acute and chronic ecotoxicities were evaluated using Daphnia magna and Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes). Associated ecological risks were estimated by calculating hazard quotients (HQs). In addition, endocrine disruption potency of BKC was compared with those of other frequently used preservatives using human adrenal (H295R) and rat pituitary (GH3) cells. High concentration of BKC was detected at locations near the pharmaceutical manufacturing plants, i.e., 35.8 mu g/L for dodecyl benzyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (BKC-C-12), and 21.6 mu g/L tetradecyl benzyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (BKC-C-14). In Daphnia, 48 h immobilization EC50 and 21 d reproduction NOEC were determined at 41.1 mu g/L and >= 10.8 mu g/L, respectively. For O. latipes, 96 h LC50 was determined at 246 mu g/L while the growth inhibition NOEC was >= 113.4 mu g/L following early life stage exposure. BKC significantly up-regulated vitellogenin gene of juvenile fish, indicating its endocrine disrupting potential in fish. Exposure to BKC increased steroid hormone level in H295R cells, and induced cytotoxicity in GH3 cells. HQ values of BKC were determined at greater than one in the ambient water near pharmaceutical manufacturing facilities. Considering high ecological risk and endocrine disrupting potential, long-term consequences of BKC contamination in aquatic ecosystem need to be examined. (C) 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.