A pilot meta-analysis on self-reported efficacy of neurofeedback for adolescents and adults with ADHD

Self-reported effectiveness of electroencephalogram-based neurofeedba ck ( EEG-NF ) against the core symptoms of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adolescents/adults remains unclear. We searched PubMed, Embase, ClinicalKey, Cochrane CENTRAL, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and ClinicalTrials.gov from inception to August 2021 for randomized clinical trials (RCTs) of EEG-NF with self-reported ADHD symptom ratings. Comparators included participants on waitlist/treatment as usual (TAU) or receiving other interventions. Of the 279 participants (mean age = 23.48; range: 6–60) in five eligible RCTs, 183 received EEG-NF treatment. Forest plot demonstrated no difference in inattention (SMD = −0.11, 95% CI −0.39–0.18, p = 0.46), total score (SMD = −0.08, 95% CI −0.36–0.2, p = 0.56), and hyperactivity/impulsivity (SMD = 0.01, 95% CI −0.23–0.25, p = 0.91) between EEG-NF and comparison groups. Nevertheless, compared with waitlist/TAU, EEG-NF showed better improvement in inattention (SMD = −0.48, 95% CI −0.9–−0.06, p = 0.03) but not hyperactivity/impulsivity (SMD = −0.03, 95% CI −0.45–0.38, p = 0.87). Follow-up 6–12 months demonstrated no difference in inattention (SMD = −0.01, 95% CI −0.41–0.38, p = 0.94), total score (SMD = 0.22, 95% CI −0.08–0.52, p = 0.15), and hyperactivity/impulsivity (SMD = −0.01, 95% CI −0.27–0.26, p = 0.96) between the two groups. Dropout rate also showed no difference (RR = 1.05, 95% CI 0.82–1.33, p = 0.72). Our results support EEG-NF for improving inattention in adolescents/young adults, although its effectiveness against hyperactivity/impulsivity remains inconclusive.