How Turkey vultures tune their airspeed to environmental and behavioral factors

Animals must tune their physical performance to changing environmental conditions, and the breadth of environmental tolerance may contribute to delineating the species’ geographic range. A common environmental challenge that flying animals face is the reduction of air density at high elevation and a reduction in the effectiveness of lift production that accompanies it. Turkey vultures ( Cathartes aura ) inhabit a >3000 m elevation range, and fly considerably higher, necessitating that they compensate for air density differences through behavior, physiology, or biomechanics. We predicted that birds flying at high elevation would demonstrate higher median flight speeds while maintaining similar glide angles. We used 3-dimensional videography to track Turkey vultures flying at three elevations and found a negative relationship between median airspeed and air density that matched our prediction. Additionally, neither the ratio of horizontal speed to sinking speed nor flapping behavior varied with air density. These results were robust to varying flight behavior (climbing vs. level flight). Finally, we derived a glide polar from the free-flying vultures and showed that they are proficient at tuning their flight speed to minimize their cost of transport during straight-line flight, but transition to a minimum power strategy during gliding turns. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.