Assessing the in vitro toxicity of airborne (nano)particles to the human respiratory system: from basic to advanced models.

Several studies have been conducted to address the potential adverse health risks attributed to exposure to nanoscale materials. While studies are fundamental for identifying the relationship between dose and occurrence of adverse effects, model systems provide important information regarding the mechanism(s) of action at the molecular level. With a special focus on exposure to inhaled (nano)particulate material toxicity assessment, this review provides an overview of the available human respiratory models and exposure systems for testing, advantages, limitations, and existing investigations using models of different complexity. A brief overview of the human respiratory system, pathway and fate of inhaled (nano)particles is also presented.