Bilayer Indium Tin Oxide Electrodes for Deformation-Free Ultrathin Flexible Perovskite Solar Cells

The superior electrical conductivity and optical transparency of indium tin oxide (ITO) make it an ideal electrode material for use in optoelectronic devices such as solar cells. When ITO electrodes are fabricated on very thin plastic substrates, however, the internal stress of the ITO layer causes the substrate to deform, severely limiting the device's performance. Herein, it is shown that ITO bilayers composed of an amorphous base layer and a crystalline overlayer lead to deformation-free ITO electrodes. It is shown that an optimized bilayer structure is achieved when the internal stresses of the amorphous and crystalline layers approximately cancel. With this approach, mixed composition metal halide perovskite solar cells with ITO electrodes are successfully fabricated on 4 mu m polyethylene naphthalate films. A power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 18.2% is obtained for the reference cell design, corresponding to a power-to-weight ratio of 24 W g(-1) before encapsulation. The devices retain 95% of the original PCE after 1000 bend cycles, while under simulated indoor lighting (white LED, 200 lux, 5000 K) the PCE reaches 28.3%. A 3-cell module with a designated area of 2.3 cm(2) is realized with a power output of 28.1 mW and an open-circuit voltage of 3.17 V.