Optimization of Water-Energy-Carbon Nexus in Urban Residential Water Uses for Shanghai, China

<p>Urban residential water uses entail energy consumption and associated carbon emissions. Reducing residential water uses thus can simultaneously save water and energy and help reduce carbon emissions. However, residential water uses are strongly affected by the choices of household appliances and fixtures, and water use behaviors. In this study, we first conducted a household water use survey in Shanghai, the largest city in China, to understand residential water use behaviors in different seasons. A two-stage stochastic optimization model is developed to optimize water and energy conservation decisions so as to minimize the expected total cost of water and water-related energy uses and maximize carbon emission reduction. Data collected through questionnaire surveys are used to parameterize the optimization model. Water and energy conservation choices are categorized into long- and short-term decisions. The results show that in Shanghai residential water uses has a strong impact on urban carbon emission reduction. Typical temperature range in different seasons strongly affects the effectiveness of short-term conservation actions. The results support a subsidy policy for water-saving appliances that can incentivize citizens in water-saving. Model results are useful for exploring the water-energy-carbon nexus of urban households considering seasonal factors</p>