Sand dune movement and flooding risk analysis for the pyramids of Meroe, Al Bagrawiya archaeological site, Sudan

The pyramids of Meroe are a significant archaeological place at the Al Bagrawiya archaeological site (Sudan) with hundreds of pyramids dating back to the kingdom of Kush (1070 BC–550 AD). In this area, winds, heavy rains, and flooding events are the main geohazards that need assessments and solutions because pyramids are subjected to an accumulation of sand dunes around them and the risk of flooding, affecting their durability. This research aims to assess the impacts of sand dunes on the stability of pyramid structures in addition to assessing the risk of flooding using satellite image observations, and damage and decay assessments of pyramid building materials were carried out through digital mapping. The results from satellite image analysis and monitoring showed that sand dunes along with heavy rains and flooding are the main decay factors, causing the collapse, disintegration, crumbling, alveolarization, loss of materials, and cracking of the sandstone ashlars, detecting an increase in deterioration, even considering only the last three decades.