Spatiotemporally heterogeneous soil thermohydraulic processes in the frozen soil of the Tibetan Plateau

Frozen soil properties and thermohydraulic processes are still not fully understood due to lack of in-situ measurements, especially in the high altitudes and high latitudes (HAHL). Based on hourly measurements at 10, 40, 80 and 120 cm depths at 21 sites in the west, south and northeast regions of the Tibetan Plateau (TP) during July 2018 - July 2019, we examined soil particles, spatiotemporal variations of soil thermohydraulic processes and their connections with environmental factors to reveal the heterogenous frozen soil properties on the TP. Sand and silt are the dominant soil particles and clay is less than 10% at the sites. Existing and widely used soil products underestimates (significantly overestimates) sand (clay) content on the TP which raises the uncertainty in the thermohydraulic parameters derived from these products. Diurnal soil moisture and temperature variations are seen only above 40 cm, but seasonal variations occur down to 120 cm due to the soil memory effect. Seasonally frozen soil and permafrost soil show different freezing and melting processes. Dry soil features greater soil temperature temporal variability and deeper maximum frozen depth than wet soil. Zero curtain occurs in both dry and wet soil, and displays high (low) frequency but short (long) duration at 10 (80) cm that vary spatially. Moisture depression exists in seasonally frozen soil and is determined by the initial soil moisture and temperature gradient strength. The strong thermohydraulic coupling existed in cold season collapses in warm season. Soil moisture exhibits higher spatiotemporal variability than soil temperature. At daily time scale, the influences of precipitation, wind speed and relative humidity on soil moisture and temperature vary under different climate conditions. These findings fill the knowledge gaps in the soil thermohydraulic processes in the HAHL, and improve the understanding of frozen soil properties and heat-water coupling processes in soil in the HAHL. The study will benefit the Earth system model development and improve the quality of soil temperature and moisture assimilation and remote sensing products in the HAHL.