Utilising affordable smartphones and open-source time-lapse photography for monitoring pollinators

Monitoring plant-pollinator interactions is crucial for understanding factors that influence these relationships across space and time. While traditional methods in pollination ecology are time-consuming and resource-intensive, the growing availability of photographic technology, coupled with advancements in artificial intelligence classification, offers the potential for non-destructive and automated techniques. However, it is important that the photographs are of high enough quality to enable insects to be identified at lower taxonomic levels, preferably genus or species levels. This study assessed the feasibility of using smartphones to automatically capture images of insects visiting flowers and evaluated whether the captured images offered sufficient resolution for precise insect identification. Smartphones were positioned above target flowers from various plant species to capture time-lapse images of any flower visitor in urban green areas around Leipzig and Halle, Germany. We present the proportions of insect identifications achieved at different taxonomic levels, such as order, family, genus, and species, and discuss whether limitations stem from the automated approach (e.g., inability to observe distinguishing features in images despite high image quality) or low image quality. Practical recommendations are provided to address these challenges. Our results indicate that for bee families, nearly three quarters of all cases could be identified to genus level. Flies were more difficult, due to the small size of many individuals and the more challenging features needed for identification (e.g., in the wing veins). Overall, we suggest that smartphones are an effective tool when optimised by researchers. As technology continues to advance, smartphones are becoming increasingly accessible, affordable, and user-friendly, rendering them an appealing option for pollinator monitoring. ### Competing Interest Statement The authors have declared no competing interest.