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Economics famously holds that people are rational maximizers of their self-interest. While nothing in economics requires self-interest to be maximized through zero-sum acquisition of money, the canonical formulations typically assume that it is. The zero-sum aspect is critical. People want (more) money, but money is a limited resource. If A is successful in his pursuit of more money, B-Z will probably be getting less money. A measures his well-being based on what he can get-as much as possible. If his pursuit of money increases the overall pot so that B-Z end up getting more, that's fine with A, but A will not incur costs to bring this about. Hence the classic prediction as to how parties will behave in the "ultimatum game." 1 The first party is given some amount of money. He chooses how much to give the second party, who can then accept or reject the first party's offer. If the first party's offer is refused, neither party gets anything. The classic prediction is that the first party will offer the second party as little as possible-one cent-and the second party will accept, since, after all, one cent is more than zero.
Global ocean warming continued unabated in 2025 in response to increased greenhouse gas concentrations and recent reductions in sulfate aerosols, reflecting the long-term accumulation of heat within the climate system, with conditions evolving toward La Niña during the year. In 2025, global upper 2000 m ocean heat content (OHC) increased by ∼23 ± 8 ZJ relative to 2024 according to IAP/CAS estimates. CIGAR-RT, and Copernicus Marine data confirm the continued ocean heat gain. Regionally, about 33
The assessment of student learning represents a key component of daily instructional practice. Formative assessment strategies are associated with the development and reinforcement of a series of skills linked to cognitive, metacognitive, behavioural and affective areas. This study investigated the effectiveness of formative assessment strategies in supporting the development of students' emotional and motivational capacities, resilience, self-efficacy, self-reflection, metacognitive awareness and self-regulation. Specifically, it examined whether formative assessment strategies could enhance these skills and improve students' academic preparation for a summative mid-term test. This quasi-experimental study involved 581 students from 37 Italian upper secondary school classes in an investigation that tested the use of self- and peer-assessment to support students' improvements in study organisation and effective summative test preparation. Findings indicate that formative assessment activities supported student preparation for a mid-term summative test. Specifically, improvements in emotional attitudes, self-efficacy, metacognitive awareness and aspects of self-regulation related to rehearsal, elaboration and organisation of learning materials were reported. The data indicate that this skill development was attributed mainly to the implementation of a peer-assessment strategy.
Reconfiguration examines relationships among solutions to a problem. Power domination models placement of monitoring units that allow monitoring of an entire electrical power network, and information about modifying one monitoring solution to another has applications. The study of token addition and removal and token jumping reconfiguration graphs for power domination is initiated. Some results established here can be extended by applying the methods used for power domination to reconfiguration graphs for other parameters. A universal framework for the study of reconfiguration of parameters that are defined from sets of vertices of a graph and satisfy certain rules is introduced. This allows application of some of the results to additional parameters such as domination and zero forcing.
