“Nanotechnology” is a word that has come a long way. Until recently most people associated nanotechnology with science fiction-based accounts that tended to focus on fantastical devices and applications. Due to developments in nanoscience (e.g., greater control over atomic structure and relatively better predictability of nanoscale properties), nanotechnology has entered the commercial realm, and it has begun simultaneously to stimulate the development of new governance frameworks. In this article, the author discusses potential benefits and risks and examines a select set of frameworks for governing this technology. DOI: 10.4018/jnmc.2011040101 2 International Journal of Nanotechnology and Molecular Computation, 3(2), 1-11, April-June 2011 Copyright © 2011, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. the Woodrow Wilson International Center For Scholars and the Pew Charitable Trusts, entitled “The Project On Emerging Nanotechnologies,” provides on their website (http://www. nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/) with a searchable inventory of more than 1000 consumer products where the manufacturer has disclosed voluntarily that nanoscale processes are used (Figure 1). THE BENEFITS OF NANOTECHNOLOGY Nanotechnology promises breakthroughs that will revolutionize disease detection and treatment, enhance environmental protection, produce and store energy, remediate contaminated soil, and lead to more targeted drug delivery (Table 1). There is even hope that advances in nanotechnology will be of direct value to the developing world (Salamanca-Buentello et al., 2005), and of course there are dissenting views as well (Mehta, 2008). In the United States, the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) was established in 2000 to examine ways to create the knowledge base required to exploit fully technological innovations arising from nanoscience, and consequently the U.S. federal government allocated $423 million for that purpose during the fiscal year 2001, and has steadily increased funding ever since. Several other countries have made similar kinds of investments, and in 2001 the National Research Council of Canada earmarked $120 million to create the National Institute for Nanotechnology at the University of Alberta (NRC, 2001). According to Canada’s National Research Council (NRC), “The economic and social impact of nanotechnology may be profound: discoveries and applications of nanotechnology could lead to a new industrial revolution in the coming century, and to commercial markets as large as $1.5 trillion per year within 10-15 years” (NRC, 2005). The applications of nanotechnology, particularly in the biomedical realm, involve a postulated trillion-dollar impact with otherwise undreamed of benefits for health care, public safety, environmental monitoring, and forensics (Pilarski et al., 2004). For example, nanoscale manipulations may enable tissue regeneration, in vivo medical monitoring by nanoscale Figure 1. Examples of common applications involving nanotechnology 9 more pages are available in the full version of this document, which may be purchased using the "Add to Cart" button on the product's webpage: www.igi-global.com/article/understanding-advancesnanotechnology/66394?camid=4v1 This title is available in InfoSci-Journals, InfoSci-Journal Disciplines Medicine, Healthcare, and Life Science. Recommend this product to your librarian: www.igi-global.com/e-resources/libraryrecommendation/?id=2
The paper presents the main ideas about MP grammars, a discrete formalism for describing and deducing dynamical systems, that combines ideas from formal language theory (P systems), recurrent equations, linear algebra and statistical regression. In this framework, some synthetic oscillators are presented which illustrate, in a simple manner, the expressive power of MP grammars in the analysis of interesting phenomena that are crucial in biochemical and biological contexts. Algorithmic Models of Biochemical Dynamics: MP Grammars Synthetizing Complex Oscillators
Citrate stabilized silver (Ag) colloidal solution were synthesized and characterized for crystallographic and surface properties by using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and zeta potential measurement techniques. TEM investigation depicted the size of Ag o ranges from 5 to 50 nm with smaller particles having single crystal structure while larger particles with structural defects (such as multiply twinned, high coalescence and Moire patterns). ζ-potential measurement confirms the presence of Ag + in nAg stock solution. The shift in ζ-potential measurement by +25.1 mV in the filtered solution suggests the presence of Ag + in Ag o nanoparticles.
In our recent paper [de Lacy Costello et al. 2010] we described the formation of complex tessellations of the plane arising from the various reactions of metal salts with potassium ferricyanide and ferrocyanide loaded gels. In addition to producing colourful tessellations these reactions are naturally computing generalised Voronoi diagrams of the plane. The reactions reported previously were capable of the calculation of three distinct Voronoi diagrams of the plane. As diffusion coupled with a chemical reaction is responsible for the calculation then this is achieved in parallel. Thus an increase in the complexity of the data input does not utilise additional computational resource. Additional benefits of these chemical reactions is that a permanent record of the Voronoi diagram calculation (in the form of precipitate free bisectors) is achieved, so there is no requirement for further processing to extract the calculation results. Previously it was assumed that the permanence of the results was also a potential drawback which limited reusability. This paper presents new data which shows that sequential Voronoi diagram calculations can be performed on the same chemical substrate. This is dependent on the reactivity of the original reagent and the cross reactivity of the secondary reagent with the primary product. We present the results from a number of binary combinations of metal salts on both potassium ferricyanide and potassium ferrocyanide substrates. We observe three distinct mechanisms whereby secondary sequential Voronoi diagrams can be calculated. In most cases the result was two interpenetrating permanent Voronoi diagrams. This is interesting from the perspective of mapping the capability of unconventional computing substrates. But also in the study of natural pattern formation per se.
DNA codeword design has been a fundamental problem since the early days of DNA computing. The problem calls for finding large sets of single DNA strands that do not crosshybridize to themselves, to each other or to others' complements. Such strands represent so-called domains, particularly in the language of chemical reaction networks (CRNs). The problem has shown to be of interest in other areas as well, including DNA memories and phylogenetic analyses because of their error correction and prevention properties. In prior work, a theoretical framework to analyze this problem has been developed and natural and simple versions of Codeword Design have been shown to be NP-complete using any single reasonable metric that approximates the Gibbs energy, thus practically making it very difficult to find any general procedure for finding such maximal sets exactly and efficiently. In this framework, codeword design is partially reduced to finding large sets of strands maximally separated in DNA spaces and, therefore, the size of such sets depends on the geometry of these spaces. Here, the authors describe in detail a new general technique to embed them in Euclidean spaces in such a way that oligonucleotides with high (low, respectively) hybridization affinity are mapped to neighboring (remote, respectively) points in a geometric lattice. This embedding materializes long-held metaphors about codeword design in analogies with error-correcting code design in information theory in terms of sphere packing and leads to designs that are in some cases known to be provably nearly optimal for small oligonucleotide sizes, whenever the corresponding spherical codes in Euclidean spaces are known to be so. It also leads to upper and lower bounds on estimates of the size of optimal codes of size under 20-mers, as well as to a few infinite families of DNA strand lengths, based on estimates of the kissing (or contact) number for sphere codes in high-dimensional Euclidean spaces. Conversely, the authors show how solutions to DNA codeword design obtained by experimental or other means can also provide solutions to difficult spherical packing geometric problems via these approaches. Finally, the reduction suggests a tool to provide some insight into the approximate structure of the Gibbs energy landscapes, which play a primary role in the design and implementation of biomolecular programs.
Citrate stabilized silver (Ag) colloidal solution were synthesized and characterized for crystallographic and surface properties by using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and zeta potential measurement techniques. TEM investigation depicted the size of Ago ranges from 5 to 50 nm with smaller particles having single crystal structure while larger particles with structural defects (such as multiply twinned, high coalescence and Moire patterns). ?-potential measurement confirms the presence of Ag+ in nAg stock solution. The shift in ?-potential measurement by +25.1 mV in the filtered solution suggests the presence of Ag+ in Ago nanoparticles.
For many centuries, the gross world product was flat. But as technology penetrated many economies, over time, the world economy has expanded. Technology will continue to shape the future of commerce, industry and culture with likes of nanotechnology and microelectronics directly or indirectly playing major roles in redesigning the global economic structures. These technologies will drive other industries and will be central to a new international economy where technology capability will determine national competitiveness. Technology-intensive firms will emerge and new innovations will evolve a new dawn in wealth creation. Nations that create or adopt and then diffuse these technologies will profit. Those that fail to use technology as a means to compete internationally will find it difficult to progress economically. This chapter provides insights on global technology diffusion, the drivers and impacts with specific focus on nanotechnology and microelectronics. It also discusses the science of these technologies along with the trends, realities and possibilities, and the barriers which must be overcome for higher global penetration rates.
Plasmodium stage of Physarum polycephalum behaves as a distributed dynamical pattern formation mechanism who's foraging and migration is influenced by local stimuli from a wide range of attractants and repellents. Complex protoplasmic tube network structures are formed as a result, which serve as efficient `circuits' by which nutrients are distributed to all parts of the organism. We investigate whether this `bottom-up' circuit routing method may be harnessed in a controllable manner as a possible alternative to conventional template-based circuit design. We interfaced the plasmodium of Physarum polycephalum to the planar surface of the spatially represented computing device, (Mills' Extended Analog Computer, or EAC), implemented as a sheet of analog computing material whose behaviour is input and read by a regular 5x5 array of electrodes. We presented a pattern of current distribution to the array and found that we were able to select the directional migration of the plasmodium growth front by exploiting plasmodium electro-taxis towards current sinks. We utilised this directional guidance phenomenon to route the plasmodium across its habitat and were able to guide the migration around obstacles represented by repellent current sources. We replicated these findings in a collective particle model of Physarum polycephalum which suggests further methods to orient, route, confine and release the plasmodium using spatial patterns of current sources and sinks. These findings demonstrate proof of concept in the low-level dynamical routing for biologically implemented circuit design.
The Roman Empire is renowned for sharp logical design and outstanding building quality of its road system. Many roads built by Romans are still used in continental Europe and UK. The Roman roads were built for military transportations with efficiency in mind, as straight as possible. Thus the roads make an ideal test-bed for developing experimental laboratory techniques for evaluating man-made transport systems using living creatures. The authors imitate development of road networks in Iron Age Italy using slime mould Physarum polycephalum. The authors represent ten Roman cities with oat flakes, inoculate the slime mould in Roma, wait as mould spans all flakes-cities with its network of protoplasmic tubes, and analyse structures of the protoplasmic networks. The authors found that most Roman roads, a part of those linking Placentia to Bononia and Genua to Florenzia are represented in development of Physarum polycephalum. Transport networks developed by Romans and by slime mould show similarities of planar proximity graphs, and particular minimum spanning tree. Based on laboratory experiments the authors reconstructed a speculative sequence of road development in Iron Age Italy.
This paper proposes a probabilistic framework for digital computation with lattices of nanoscale switches based on the mathematical phenomenon of percolation. With random connectivity, percolation gives rise to a sharp non-linearity in the probability of global connectivity as a function of the probability of local connectivity. This phenomenon is exploited to compute Boolean functions robustly in the presence of defects. It is shown that the margins, defined in terms of the steepness of the non-linearity, translate into the degree of defect tolerance. Achieving good margins entails a mapping problem. Given a target Boolean function, the problem is how to assign literals to regions of the lattice such that no diagonal paths of 1’s exist in any assignment that evaluates to 0. Assignments with such paths result in poor error margins due to stray, random connections that can form across the diagonal. A necessary and sufficient condition is formulated for a mapping strategy that preserves good margins: the top-to-bottom and left-to-right connectivity functions across the lattice must be dual functions. Based on lattice duality, an efficient algorithm to perform the mapping is proposed. The algorithm optimizes the lattice area while meeting prescribed worst-case margins. Its effectiveness is demonstrated on benchmark circuits.
The plasmodium of Physarum polycephalum is a large single cell visible with the naked eye. When inoculated on a substrate with attractants and repellents the plasmodium develops optimal networks of protoplasmic tubes which span sites of attractants (i.e. nutrients) yet avoid domains with a high nutrient concentration. It should therefore be possible to program the plasmodium towards deterministic adaptive transformation of internalised nano- and micro-scale materials. In laboratory experiments with magnetite nanoparticles and glass micro-spheres coated with silver metal we demonstrate that the plasmodium of P. polycephalum can propagate the nano-scale objects using a number of distinct mechanisms including endocytosis, transcytosis and dragging. The results of our experiments could be used in the development of novel techniques targeted towards the growth of metallised biological wires and hybrid nano- and micro-circuits.
Information processing is essential for any lifeform to maintain its organisation despite continuous entropic disturbance. Macromolecules provide the ubiquitous underlying substrate on which nature implements information processing and have also come into focus for technical applications. There are two distinct approaches to the use of molecules for computing. Molecules can be employed to mimic the logic switches of conventional computers or they can be used in a way that exploits the complex functionality offered by a molecular computing substrate. Prerequisite to the latter is a mapping of input-output transform provided by the substrate. This paper reviews microfluidic technology as a versatile means to achieve this, show how it can be used, and provide proven recipes for its application.
The Synthetic Biology engineering based approach to living systems intersects with the new interdisciplinary field of unconventional computing and suggests a new method for design in architectural practice. Living systems possess unique properties that are not present in digital/mechanical systems - their sensors and effectors are intrinsically coupled, perform parallel forms of computation, are able to respond to unpredictable circumstances, respond in real time to environmental changes, and possess a robustness that can result in evolutionary change. This paper proposes how living technology, operating through the principles of unconventional computing could offer new environmentally remediating materials for architectural practice using a bottom-up approach to the construction of buildings and other human-made interventions.
“Nanotechnology” is a word that has come a long way. Until recently most people associated nanotechnology with science fiction-based accounts that tended to focus on fantastical devices and applications. Due to developments in nanoscience (e.g., greater control over atomic structure and relatively better predictability of nanoscale properties), nanotechnology has entered the commercial realm, and it has begun simultaneously to stimulate the development of new governance frameworks. In this article, the author discusses potential benefits and risks and examines a select set of frameworks for governing this technology.
This study examined a possibility to use a two-dimensional nonlinear Fabry-Perot interferometer (2DNFP) as a novel information processing device. Optical bistability was realized through positive or negative feedback between heat generated by absorption of light and change in resonance condition induced by temperature-dependent refractive index. Due to heat conduction in lateral direction, “turn-on” wave propagates two-dimensionally in this device. A novel feature of this device is that the ON-state region can degenerate at suitably weak light intensity. The authors examined the function of 2DNFP as a maze solver utilizing the extension and degeneration modes, as well as its function as logic gates. “AND”, “OR”, and “NOT” gates were realized, thus the logical universality of the 2DNFP was demonstrated
The enormous potential of parallel computing has led to the first prototype devices being constructed. However, all the examples to date rely on complicated chemical and/or physical manipulations, and hence do not lend themselves to the kind of widespread investigation necessary to advance the field. This article presents a new paradigm for parallel computing: the use of solid, single crystalline materials as cellular automata suggesting the idea of the “Crystal Computer,” now possible due to a new class of crystalline cellular materials that undergo single-crystal-to-single-crystal (SC-SC) oxidation and reduction (REDOX) reactions. Two avenues are proposed for investigation: reversible single-crystal to single-crystal electronic transformations and solid-state spin transfer within spin-crossover complexes. Both schemes allow computation to occur in three dimensions, within cheap and easy to assemble materials and using commonplace techniques for input and readout.
As the applications of nanotechnology continue to span various industries, the number of workers who may be in regular contact with nanomaterials correspondingly expand. The excitement associated with the promise of opportunities to create revolutionary advances in product development using nanotechnology must be moderated with the fact that there is a paucity of empirical data about the potential health effects of exposure to nanoparticles. This lack of exposure data hinders the development of nanotechnology health and safety guidelines (Murashov, 2009). Nanotechnology is science at the size of individual atoms and molecules. At that size scale, materials have different chemical and physical properties than those of the same materials in bulk. With the current state of knowledge in this field, there are unanswered questions about the impacts of nanomaterials and nanoproducts on human health and the environment. This paper reviews the state-of the-science, exposure assessment and mitigation, and potential macro ethical issues that must be considered to mitigate risk implications this emerging technology, nanotechnology.
For many centuries, the gross world product was flat. But as technology penetrated many economies, over time, the world economy has expanded. Technology will continue to shape the future of commerce, industry and culture with likes of nanotechnology and microelectronics directly or indirectly playing major roles in redesigning the global economic structures. These technologies will drive other industries and will be central to a new international economy where technology capability will determine national competitiveness. Technology-intensive firms will emerge and new innovations will evolve a new dawn in wealth creation. Nations that create or adopt and then diffuse these technologies will profit. Those that fail to use technology as a means to compete internationally will find it difficult to progress economically. This article provides insights on global technology diffusion, the drivers and impacts with specific focus on nanotechnology and microelectronics. It also discusses the science of these technologies along with the trends, realities and possibilities, and the barriers which must be overcome for higher global penetration rates.
Nanotechnology is currently seen as a paradigm shift towards scientific revolution or 'nano revolution. This chapter discusses the nano revolution within the global context. It is interesting to see that the governments around the world have formulated policies to manage the research and development (R&D) efforts and exploit the potential of nanotechnology to increase industry's ability in the global economy. The chapter analyses the successive waves of technological change based on Kuhn's model of scientific change and Schumpeter's model of Kondratieff cycles. As nanotechnology would have significant impacts on virtually every commercial sector, many countries commit to foster nanotechnology developments. This chapter will focus on nanotechnology framework policy recommendations. The policies and research activities of the most preeminent nations discussed in this chapter represent global research trend towards nano revolution in the next decades.
