Drones is an emerging technology in education. Research has shown that their use has positive effects on student learning, especially in STEM education. Although the number of studies on their use is increasing, however, research on their acceptance in STEM education is lacking. The aim of this study is to propose a model of acceptance of First Person View (FPV) drones and to examine the factors that affect in-service teachers to use these drones with their students in STEM activities. The FPV drones were chosen among the different types of drones due to their special characteristics and affordances (i.e., presence, bird's-eye view and first-person view). The research model of acceptance proposed is based on TAM and the following variables: facilitating conditions, perceived enjoyment and perceived affordances. The study involved 64 in-service teachers who interacted with the FPV drone in a STEM scenario. The quantitative results showed that teachers had positive perceptions about the use of FPV drones in STEM activities in their teaching. Another important finding of this research is that the research model explained 56.3
Presence is an important concept in Extended Reality (XR) learning environments. Although there are clear definitions and several tools for measuring presence in Virtual Reality, there is no clear definition of presence in Augmented Reality (AR) and limited tools for its measurement. The aim of this pilot study was to propose a new tool for measuring Presence in AR called "Presence in Augmented Reality Questionnaire" (PARQ) and test its content validity and internal reliability by means of a sample of undergraduate students (N = 145) that interacted with an AR application on two different devices: Magic Leap 1 AR Glasses and a smartphone. A secondary aim was to compare the presence levels of each device. The initial version of PARQ consisted of four factors: realness, interactivity, non-mediation, and engagement with a total of 15 items. The content validity of PARQ was assessed by 10 experts in the field of XR in education and was found adequate. Nevertheless, to enhance the internal reliability of the factors, five items were removed, resulting in a revised version comprising three factors: realness, interactivity and engagement. The results from the revised tool showed that AR glasses generated a greater sense of presence compared to the smartphone. Additionally, the majority of students favored AR glasses over the smartphone. Overall, this was an initial attempt to develop and evaluate a new tool for measuring presence in AR, which requires further refinement and more comprehensive empirical evaluation.
The impact of VR transition spaces on learning measures such as engagement, time in learning environments, and memory retention is a key area for study. While existing research often focuses on bounded VR environments, few studies evaluate transition spaces in VR learning contexts. This study fills that gap by assessing how the presence and placement of transitions influence engagement and memory retention. In our study, participants were divided into four groups-No Transition, Transition-In, Transition-Out, and Transition-In-and-Out-and assessed on performance in a VR learning task. Results showed a clear advantage in memory retention and engagement for groups experiencing transitions before learning. These findings highlight the potential for strategically placed VR transition spaces to serve as cognitive primers, preparing learners for more effective information processing and retention. Future research should expand on these results by exploring diverse content, broader learner demographics, and additional learning measures including critical thinking and long-term retention.
A growing body of research on extended reality (XR) interventions for neurodivergent individuals, particularly those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), has begun to advocate for a shift from a deficit-based model to a more inclusive, neurodiversity-affirming framework. Early studies focused primarily on leveraging virtual reality (VR) to address social communication challenges, but contemporary approaches have begun to broaden their scope to prioritize sensory, cognitive, and emotional needs of neurodiverse users. This paper explores this evolution of XR interventions, emphasizing the importance of co-design methodologies that actively involve autistic individuals in the development process. A transdiagnostic perspective is advocated, recognizing shared challenges across neurodevelopmental conditions such as autism, ADHD, and sensory processing disorders. This inclusive approach allows for the development of adaptable XR environments, enhancing accessibility and promoting skill generalization. The paper argues for a paradigm shift in XR research, calling for a focus on empowering neurodiverse individuals through customization, flexibility, and immersive features tailored to their strengths. Ultimately, the paper highlights the ethical imperative of centering neurodiverse voices and advancing inclusive research agendas that prioritize autonomy, well-being, and long-term support for neurodivergent populations.
To explore the impact of spatiality on social interaction in immersive learning environments, we conducted an experimental study involving students engaged in a virtual scavenger hunt with varying levels of movement (N = 17 in 6 groups of 3). Our study aimed to examine how different degrees of spatiality influence social interactions and collaboration. Despite thorough analysis, we did not find significant differences between the high and low movement groups. However, our study provides exploratory insights into the role of spatiality in virtual environments. We observe trends suggesting nuanced effects of movement on interaction, even if not statistically significant. This paper concludes with recommendations for instructional design and future research directions, offering guidance on leveraging spatiality in virtual learning contexts to enhance social engagement and learning outcomes.
Autistic individuals often have difficulties when training for work in traditional workplaces. While work-based learning programs are helpful for all people, when supplemented by simulation-based training they are especially beneficial to those on the autism spectrum. This is a case study of a Greens Do Good hydroponic vertical farm work-based learning program designed specifically for autistic trainees using augmented (AR) and virtual reality (VR) technologies. A design-based methodology was used to create three different AR and VR training tools customized for training workers towards greater independence in the work-place. Through the design and prototyping cycle, design elements that are especially effective for AR and VR experiences for autistic trainees were discovered. These include user interface button design, effective color schemes, integrating audio instructions and cues, and advantages for AR or VR use depending on the severity of autism for the trainee.
For good training in geomatics, the development of practical surveying skills is essential. However, high costs and logistical difficulties limit such activities. Immersive education can be an alternative, by enabling a simulation that allows prior preparation for practical or field training, with better use of time and resources. The work presented in this paper differs from others found in the literature by using immersive virtual reality to allow the manipulation of a total station. Two types of evaluations were carried out, with experts and students, which highlighted the feasibility and potential of this approach and brought insights into how to proceed with this project.
Physical Education (PE) plays a crucial role in students' overall development by engaging them in physical activities. PE teachers should find attractive and challenging activities that engage students in physical activity in a meaningful manner. The integration of immersive technologies, such as Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR), has shown significant promise in enhancing student engagement and performance in PE. This paper investigates the effects of an AR-based intervention involving 22 elementary students in circuit training, utilizing a mixed methods approach. Quantitative data validated existing research by confirming the physical, psychological, cognitive, social, and attitudinal advantages of AR, while qualitative insights from a focus group of eight students provided deeper analysis of their experiences. The findings revealed that AR enhances student engagement, motivation, and confidence and lead to positive attitudes toward physical activity both in and outside the classroom. The immersive technologies encouraged skill development, teamwork, and self-efficacy, contributing to a comprehensive approach to student development. These results suggest that AR can serve as a valuable tool for PE teachers, helping students build confidence in designing and adapting fitness plans, thereby supporting a life-long commitment to physical activity and health.
Research found that the sense of presence (SOP) has the potential to enhance learning processes in immersive learning environments. While the positive immediate effects of SOP on affective variables are well-documented, the effects on the quality of reasoning are less known. The aim of this study was to explore to what extent SOP predicts a specific kind of affective variable - learners’ acceptance of immersive technology - and the quality of learners’ reasoning, defined as knowledge-based reasoning (KBR). 56 healthcare assistant apprentices were engaged to reflect on the professional procedure of blood sampling which was presented through a 360° immersive video. We applied a partial least squares structural equation modelling analysis to test the hypotheses. The results confirmed that SOP significantly predicts learners’ acceptance of immersive environments. However, no direct relationship was found between SOP and KBR. Findings suggest that the relation between SOP and reasoning is complex and potentially mediated by other factors. Future research should investigate how different reflective tasks influence the quality of reasoning in immersive learning environment.
With the aim of presenting a motivating experience that promotes learning in the field of three-dimensional statics, and developing improved problem-solving strategies for engineering students, a tool using augmented reality was designed to be applied in the context of physics. This paper proposes the design of a mobile application and its preliminary implementation to carry out usability testing of this augmented reality tool designed for its use in engineering education which is part of the STEM field. In the initial phase, 2D models were designed to represent scenarios following the features of the problem-based learning approach. Then, these scenarios were transformed into three-dimensional models. The second phase of the project refers to the implementation of the tool through usability tests, and finally, the third phase of the document or the analysis phase, focuses on the analysis of the usability results to make necessary adjustments in order to offer better user experience.
Guest lectures are a valuable part of a university education but can be expensive. New forms of display can give the illusion of a hologram enabling a remote lecturer to be 'present' with a group of students, but there are questions regarding how students perceive and respond to such a lecture delivered this way. In an exploratory study, we surveyed and videoed 12 volunteer students who attended two short lectures in succession, given by two full-sized hologram lecturers. Social presence was high, with the students believing strongly that the hologram speaker was 'in the room', sentient, conscious of them and, essentially behaving as an authentic lecturer. Moreover, the students' perceived satisfaction, engagement, and sense of learning suggested the experience was much closer to an in-person lecture than a video conferencing session. Video analysis indicated that students' behaviour was consistent with the lecturer having control over the teaching session, although there was some evidence for distraction effects. We conclude by providing some initial recommendations on how best to use holograms in a university setting to maximise the student learning experience.
Many healthcare students report feeling underprepared for the operating room, often due to insufficient knowledge of its rules and the roles of team members. To address this issue, a virtual reality operating room was developed specifically for novice healthcare students using a user-centered design approach. The virtual reality learning environment was created in collaboration with subject matter experts, following a structured design process and best practices tailored for virtual reality learning applications, grounded in the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. A structured usability study was conducted with 14 participants to assess their feeling of presence in the system, the system's usability, and to collect qualitative feedback on their experience. The results showed high levels of presence and good to excellent usability. Based on users' feedback, iterative improvements were made to refine the system. Therefore, this virtual operating room can be a valuable tool for bridging the gap between theoretical classroom instruction and clinical practice with the aim of improving students' readiness for their first operating room experience.
Virtual Reality (VR) technologies are transforming educational practices, offering new ways to engage students in immersive learning environments. However, there is still a gap in understanding how VR can specifically enhance teamwork skills and collaboration in higher education settings. We developed a real- time, interactive Maze Challenge for VR and evaluated its' impact on team cohesion, communication, and leadership, while also comparing the VR-based exercise with traditional team-building methods. Twenty master's students from a User Experience (UX) Design course participated in the task, working in teams of four to five, led by a designated team leader, to navigate through a virtual maze. The results demonstrated significant improvements in team dynamics, with students reporting increased enthusiasm for teamwork, greater connectedness with their team, and increased confidence in collaboration, immediately after the immersive VR experience. Qualitative feedback emphasised the immersive nature of VR as a key driver for engagement and collaboration. The study concludes with recommendations for integrating VR into academic curricula to enhance teamwork skills and group cohesion.
Augmented Reality (AR) enhances learning experiences and improves student engagement. However, the nature of learners' engagement in AR enhanced educational activities has not been yet thoroughly investigated. The present study is aiming at answering the question why primary school pupils engage in AR educational activities. The study employes the uses and gratification theory as its theoretical framework. One hundred and six pupils from four Scottish primary schools participated in a two-week programme creating AR experiences within their curriculum subjects. Quantitative data was collected through an online questionnaire afterwards. Structured equation modeling was used for the analysis. Findings have shown that enjoyment and satisfaction (hedonic factors) significantly explain and predict pupils' engagement in the AR educational activities. Nevertheless, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use (utilitarian factors) are not significant predictors of primary pupils' engagement. Study findings are important for educators and educational policy makers. Understanding how AR affects learning engagement in primary school pupils can help shape future educational policies and practices. Moreover, understanding how AR can foster engagement contributes to children's academic development.
This study explores the role of virtual reality (VR) in facilitating immersive learning environments, focusing specifically on grassroots education efforts in sign language (SL) within the VRChat social platform. The classes in French SL were conducted by a Deaf professional teacher, and the student group varied in terms of sensory abilities, language proficiency, and technological skills, creating a highly asymmetrical learning environment. Based on multimodal videography through the detailed analysis of two single cases, we explore how unique VR tools – such as ‘airpens’ and spatial-directional emojis – were employed by both the teacher and students to pursue their educational projects: to facilitate understanding and the progressivity of the lesson, and to engage in the learning process. These resources gave participants elementary solutions to handle technological and communicative asymmetries. While generally effective, uses of VR-native tools in our data evidence that their effectiveness depends on acquired interactional competencies. Our findings have practical implications for VR implementation in both formal and grassroots learning context, and particularly for underrepresented groups like SL learners. Specifically, we discuss the necessity to provide participants with adaptable tools to carry out their learning activities in order to leverage the specific characteristics of the technological environment.
In today's technological landscape, immersive virtual reality (VR) has become a key tool for visualization, interaction, and enhancing learning experiences. While research shows VR environments can reduce stress and improve mood, few studies have explored how different levels of VR immersion affect individuals' physiological and psychological responses compared to physical environments. This study aims to investigate the effects of different levels of VR immersion on 60 university students, focusing on mood, cognitive load, and heart rate, and how these factors contribute to the overall user experience. Participants were assigned to one of three conditions: a physical environment, a passthrough environment (combining physical surroundings with virtual elements), and a fully immersive VR environment. They engaged in tasks such as exploring digital content, utilizing a 3D design application, and typing, in a limited timeframe. Heart rate and typing speed were recorded, and participants completed questionnaires measuring arousal, pleasure, dominance, satisfaction, and cognitive load. Results showed greater satisfaction with the passthrough environment, with a positive correlation between satisfaction and pleasure in both the passthrough and physical conditions. Physical keyboards were more effective than virtual ones. There were no significant differences in mental and physical demands across the conditions, suggesting that participants experienced comparable cognitive and physical demands in both passthrough VR and physical environments. These findings are promising, especially given the early stage of VR technology. As headsets improve, participants are likely to experience even lower demands. This study highlights VR's potential, particularly in hybrid environments, to enhance learning and user satisfaction.
Immersive environments have been shown to unlock unique and valuable learning experiences; however, the amount of expertise currently needed with extended reality (XR) technologies to create engaging immersive learning environments is a limiting factor in their wider implementation. These technological and knowledge barriers are magnified when the learning environments are utilized for research, due to the additional requirements of data management, security, and privacy. This article identifies numerous barriers to the wider uptake of custom immersive learning environments and proposes a framework for the development of content management systems (CMS) for hosting XR software applications that would streamline the adaptation process between educators/researchers and XR technologies in applications for research, teaching, and learning. As part of the growing Edu-Metaverse ecosystem, our ImmersityXR Framework aims to lower barriers to immersive environment design by leveraging existing cyberinfrastructure in higher education, allowing educators and researchers to focus more on the learning goals of their environments and less on the technological expertise needed to achieve them. We use a case study to illustrate the value of a pilot CMS platform implementation. Using a pilot XR CMS platform allowed a small research and development team to reach their design and research goals with limited resources and short timeline. The goal of this work is to define and advance XR CMS platform design as an accessible catalyst to support future immersive learning environments.
This paper presents an expert-based review and evaluation of a gamified Mixed Reality (MR) application designed for dental education. The application designed and developed based on proposed theoretical and practical gamified MR frameworks, with the goal of enhancing the learning experience by employing the enhanced ARCS (Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction) model with gamification (ARCS+G) to further increase motivation. The evaluation focuses on optimizing the application's usability and, consequently, improving the user experience (UX). It also emphasizes the iterative process to ensure a user-centered design using rapid application development (RAD). This gamified MR application allows dentistry students to interact with holographic 3D dental models, providing an immersive and interactive learning environment integrated with game elements through the use of Microsoft HoloLens 2. The evaluation involved 25 experts from various fields including Computer Science, medical and health science, and game development, and was conducted in two rounds. The results from usability tests and UX assessments indicate that the application is effective in enhancing learning engagement, though areas for improvement were identified, particularly in user interface design and interaction flow. The findings contribute to the growing field of human-computer interaction (HCI) and the application of immersive technologies in education, offering a framework for future developments in gamified MR applications.
Since the publication of the 2020 paper, "Finding the Gaps About Uses of Immersive Learning Environments: A Survey of Surveys," the landscape of immersive learning environments (ILEs) has continued to evolve rapidly. This update aims to revisit the gaps identified in that previous research and explore emerging trends. We conducted an extensive review of new surveys published after that paper's cut date. Our findings reveal a significant amount of new published reviews (n = 64), more than doubling the original corpus (n = 47). The results highlighted novel themes of usage of immersive environments, helping bridge some 2020 research gaps. This paper discusses those developments and presents a consolidated perspective on the uses of immersive learning environments.
