In endemic countries such as Iraq, Echinococcus granulosus (E. granulosus) causes cystic echinococcosis (CE), which is an important zoonotic disease, for which information on epidemiology is needed for adequate monitoring and implementation of prevention programs. A cross-sectional study was performed to assess the seroprevalence of human CE, risk factors associated with it, and abdominal ultrasonographic findings in the residents of Sulaimani City in northern Iraq. A total of 454 participants were recruited, and serum samples were tested for anti-E. granulosus IgG antibodies using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Structured questionnaires were used to collect sociodemographic data and possible exposure factors, and to find independent determinants of seropositivity; binary logistic regression was used. Seropositive participants were invited to undergo an abdominal ultrasound (US). Overall, seroprevalence was 13.4% (61/454). Most demographic, occupational, lifestyle, and exposure-related variables had no significant relationship with seropositivity. However, a family history of hydatid illness was found to be independently linked with infection (OR = 2.75, 95% CI: 1.02-7.38; p = 0.045). Six (27.3%) of the 22 seropositive participants who underwent US had abdominal hydatid cysts. The liver was the most often affected organ (50.0%), followed by the kidney (33.3%). Older age, female sex, and past hydatid illness were significant factors associated with cyst detection. The results of this study indicate that CE is a public health problem in Sulaimani City. Household clustering indicates shared environmental exposure, whereas weak correlation with traditional risk variables indicates high environmental exposure. Enhancing One Health initiatives and combining serological screening with imaging have the potential to improve early detection and reduce transmission in endemic areas.
Aedes (Ae.) aegypti and Ae. albopictus are efficient vectors of medically important Old World alphaviruses including chikungunya virus. In contrast to the well-characterized responses to orthoflavivirus infections, antiviral defense against alphaviruses in Aedes mosquitoes remains comparatively underexplored. This review summarizes current knowledge of antiviral defense mechanisms in Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus, integrating insights from both intrinsic immune responses and extrinsic antiviral factors to translational relevance. RNA interference (RNAi) dominates the antiviral defense against alphaviruses, whereas canonical immune signaling pathways, including Toll, IMD, JAK/STAT and JNK demonstrate relatively limited, transient or species-specific activity. To establish persistent infections, alphaviruses have developed various immune evasion strategies, such as the expression of viral suppressors of RNAi (VSRs) as an RNAi counter-mechanism. Beyond acute antiviral responses, piRNAs derived from viral-derived DNA (vDNA) and endogenous viral elements (EVE) have been proposed to contribute to long-term immune memory. In addition to intrinsic immune defenses, superinfection exclusion and Wolbachia infection further shape vector competence to alphaviruses. Together, this review describes RNAi as the central defense relative to the context-dependent canonical signaling pathways, extrinsic factors to influence vector competence such as microbial interaction and superinfection exclusion, and highlights key concepts and challenges necessary for designing effective and sustainable arbovirus control strategies.
Climate change is expected to drive the northward expansion of phlebotomine sand flies in Europe, increasing the potential for transmission of vector-borne pathogens such as Leishmania infantum. This study assessed the historical baseline and future climatic suitability for Phlebotomus mascittii, the northernmost distributed sand fly species in Europe, across Western Europe. A mixed-effects logistic regression model was developed using summer climatic variables and land cover data, based on standardised field surveys conducted in 2023-2024 across France, Germany, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The model was applied to project future suitability under three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP2-4.5, SSP3-7.0, SSP5-8.5) for the periods 2041-2060 and 2081-2100. Results indicate an increase of 20-30 percentage points in predicted climatic suitability relative to the historical baseline across Luxembourg, Belgium, western Germany, and the southern Netherlands by 2041-2060 under all SSP scenarios. By 2081-2100, this expansion intensifies, reaching projected average increases in climatic suitability across the study area of approximately 28 percentage points under SSP2-4.5, 45 percentage points under SSP3-7.0, and 57 percentage points under SSP5-8.5, with the largest increases occurring in the northernmost regions. The model showed moderate discrimination (AUC = 0.74, 95% CI: 0.68-0.80), with grouped 5-fold cross-validation yielding a mean AUC of 0.71. At the optimal threshold (0.164), apparent sensitivity was 0.55 and specificity 0.83 (accuracy = 0.80; TSS = 0.39). Accordingly, the projections should be interpreted as indicators of areas with increasing climatic suitability rather than precise predictions of future species occurrence, establishment, or pathogen transmission. Overall, the findings suggest that climate change may substantially expand climatically suitable areas for Ph. mascittii in the northern distribution margin in Western Europe, highlighting the need for adaptive surveillance and providing a spatial framework to support targeted vector surveillance and future One Health preparedness.
Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus are invasive mosquitoes and the primary vectors of dengue, Zika, yellow fever, and chikungunya. Their ecological traits, particularly larval habitats and adult resting sites, are critical for designing effective strategies to reduce mosquito abundance and disease transmission. A systematic review was conducted following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines to identify studies published between January 1998 and December 2024 in PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and Web of Science. We implemented a random-effects model to estimate the relative abundance of adult female Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus across indoor and outdoor environments, adjusted for variability across studies. Associations between larval sites, sample types, mosquito capture methods, season, and relative mosquito abundance were evaluated using meta-regression analysis. Of 9,270 publications, 38 studies met the inclusion criteria, representing 18 countries across Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Combined data showed that 15% of Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus were collected indoors and 85% outdoors. In studies sampling both settings, 49.43% (95% CI: 37.34 to 61.57) of Ae. aegypti were collected indoors and 56.54% (95% CI: 43.79 to 68.87) outdoors, whereas 39.78% (95% CI: 18.81 to 62.94) of Ae. albopictus were collected indoors and 62.02% (95% CI: 47.86 to 75.21) outdoors. Subgroup analysis showed that mosquito abundance varied according to larval site, mosquito life stage, season, and sampling method. Significant associations between mosquito abundance and larval sites, sample types, mosquito capture methods, and season were identified, although these associations differed by species, sampling method, and collection setting. Overall, Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus were more abundant outdoors, whereas Ae. aegypti showed greater indoor abundance than Ae. albopictus. Applying these findings can strengthen arbovirus surveillance and vector control through targeted monitoring of Aedes populations and ecological preferences.
Bartonella spp. and haemotropic Mycoplasma spp. are important vector-borne bacteria of veterinary and zoonotic relevance, yet information on their circulation in Indonesian island ecosystems remains limited. We investigated their occurrence and molecular diversity in 117 domestic and free-roaming cats from the Gili Islands, Indonesia, using full-length 16S rRNA nanopore metagenomics followed by targeted PCR, sequencing, phylogenetic analysis and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Bartonella DNA was detected in 18/117 (15.4%) cats and haemotropic Mycoplasma DNA in 40/117 (34.2%). Sequence analysis identified Bartonella henselae as the predominant species together with Bartonella clarridgeiae. MLST of B. henselae revealed three sequence types (ST1, ST16 and ST42), with ST1, a lineage reported in both feline and human isolates, predominating. Comparison with the PubMLST database showed significant geographical differences in the distribution of ST1 and ST42, supporting regional variation in the circulation of B. henselae lineages. Haemoplasma characterization identified Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum, Mycoplasma haemofelis, Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis and a Mycoplasma feliminutum-like organism, comprising ten distinct sequence variants. Haemoplasma positivity was significantly associated with age, with adults showing higher positivity than younger animals (P < 0.001), whereas Bartonella infection was not associated with age, sex or island of origin. The detection of zoonotically relevant B. henselae lineages and the genetic diversity of feline haemoplasmas provide evidence of the circulation of vector-borne bacteria among cats in this tropical island ecosystem. These findings provide the first molecular epidemiological baseline for this region and contribute to understanding the circulation and genetic diversity of feline vector-borne pathogens in Southeast Asia.
The genus Sciopemyia Barretto, 1962 comprises 12 species and presents important taxonomic challenges, including species described from a single sex, morphologically similar females, and the occurrence of a species complex within Sciopemyia sordellii (Shannon & Del Ponte, 1927). To clarify the taxonomic status of the genus, an integrative taxonomy approach was applied, combining molecular data and wing geometric morphometrics (WGM). Sequences of a fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene from 10 Sciopemyia species were analysed together with previously published sequences using four single-locus species-delimitation methods to evaluate the correspondence between molecular units and nominal species. In the WGM analyses, 13 landmarks were selected and subjected to different statistical analyses to discriminate 11 species. A total of 53 COI sequences were amplified and analysed. Maximum intraspecific genetic distances ranged from 0.0% to 13.53%, whereas minimum interspecific distances ranged from 3.77% to 13.53%. However, for some species, only a single sequence was analyzed, which may not accurately reflect the true intraspecific variability. The COI-based phylogeny and molecular species-delimitation methods grouped the sequences into at least one well-supported clade for each nominal species, except for the pair Sciopemyia apicalis/S. sordellii. Cryptic diversity was detected in S. sordellii, S. servulolimai and S. shimabukuroae, generally associated with geographical distribution or biome. In addition, COI sequences were obtained for the first time for S. apicalis, S. birali, S. nematoducta and S. shimabukuroae. Wing geometric morphometrics did not clearly separate the species, grouping them into two main clusters. However, these patterns were congruent with the morphological taxonomy of the genus, DNA-based taxonomy and the geographical distribution of the species.
Mosquito larvae may compete for resources or space in shared habitats with limited nutrients by resource exploitation or defence or both. In container habitats, the sequence of colonization often dictates community assembly. We examined how arrival order and temporal lags (3 and 7 days) influence the competitive outcomes between invasive Aedes aegypti, Ae. albopictus, and resident Culex pipiens. Studies on the magnitude of priority effects in these systems are lacking. Larvae were added simultaneously and sequentially (after 3 and 7 days) to the dynamics between these mosquito species. Results indicate that simultaneous introduction maximizes competitive stress, resulting in significant mortality and reduced wing length across all species. Conversely, early colonizers gained a distinct fitness advantage; a 3-7-day head start significantly enhanced survival and growth, while late-arriving cohorts were severely suppressed. While Ae. aegypti typically maintained competitive dominance, this advantage diminished when Culex established priority. Results from conditioned-water treatments mirrored live-larval interactions, suggesting that chemical and microbial modifications are primary drivers of these priority effects. Adult behavioural responses of adult mosquitoes to competition was also assessed to determine whether females avoid exposing their offspring to competitive environments when possible. Gravid females exhibited clear discrimination when presented with conspecific-conditioned, heterospecific-conditioned, and dechlorinated water. The general avoidance of heterospecific-conditioned water suggests that chemical cues guide oviposition decisions, potentially functioning as a mechanism to bypass competitive pressures in natural habitats. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for predicting invasion outcomes and for designing vector control strategies that exploit natural competitive asymmetries.
Merozoite Surface Protein Duffy Binding-like 1 and 2 (MSPDBL1 and MSPDBL2) are involved in erythrocyte invasion by Plasmodium falciparum. Antibodies targeting PfMSPDBL1 and PfMSPDBL2 show strong opsonizing and growth-inhibitory activities, supporting their potential as asexual blood-stage vaccine candidates. Given that the extensive genetic diversity of P. falciparum contributes to immune evasion, identifying polymorphisms in regions encoding PfMSPDBL1 and PfMSPDBL2 is essential to assess their relevance as vaccine targets. In this study, we investigated polymorphisms in the pfmspdbl1 and pfmspdbl2 genes and their impact on potentially antigenic regions within the Duffy Binding-like (DBL) and Secreted Polymorphic Antigen Associated with Merozoite (SPAM) domains. Blood samples were collected from 47 P. falciparum-infected individuals from three malaria-endemic areas of the Brazilian Amazon. Genomic DNA was extracted, PCR-amplified, and sequenced. Intrapopulation genetic diversity and Tajima's D values were estimated using bioinformatics tools. Linear B- and T-cell epitopes were predicted using BCPreds and IEDB (Immune Epitope Database), respectively. Two and thirty-two polymorphisms were identified in pfmspdbl1 within the SPAM and DBL domains, respectively, whereas pfmspdbl2 presented two polymorphisms across both domains and a 12 bp insertion in the SPAM domain. Tajima's D values were positive across domains, except for the DBL domain of pfmspdbl2 in Mâncio Lima. Fifteen B-cell and fifteen T-cell epitopes were predicted, with polymorphisms in three B-cell epitopes affecting Vaxijen scores. Together, these findings reveal contrasting evolutionary patterns between PfMSPDBL1 and PfMSPDBL2, with potential implications for antigenicity, and highlight PfMSPDBL2 as a potential candidate for further evaluation in multicomponent blood-stage malaria vaccine development.
Ticks and tick-borne diseases (TBDs) in Southeast Asia are poorly understood, confounding surveillance, and mitigation opportunities. Herein, we conducted a survey of experts (n = 25) to identify tick species and TBDs of greatest concern to Southeast Asia, 'drivers' which may alter their impacts, and research hurdles. These experts identified Dermacentor auratus, Haemaphysalis longicornis, Rhipicephalus linnaei, Amblyomma testudinarium sensu lato, Ixodes granulatus, Ixodes persulcatus, and Rhipicephalus microplus as ticks of greatest concern; and rickettsioses, severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus, borreliosis, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever, anaplasmosis, tick-borne encephalitis, and novel tick-borne viruses as TBDs of greatest concern. Land-use change was expected to have the largest impact on ticks and TBDs, followed by climate change, invasive species, and drug resistance. The three biggest research hurdles were lack of funding, lack of awareness, and lack of taxonomic expertise. Addressing these near-term priorities and hurdles while harmonizing research efforts and surveillance within, and between countries may help lay the groundwork for future research and surveillance efforts in the region, and may also enhance the region's preparedness, ultimately leading to better health outcomes for the region.
Among the several Asian Aedes species that have established in Europe over recent decades, Aedes koreicus has received comparatively little research attention since its first detection in Belgium in 2008, despite its remarkable ability to colonise montane and peri-alpine localities at elevations beyond the reach of its congener Aedes albopictus. Nearly two decades after its European detection, a systematic synthesis of the available evidence and a structured assessment of research and operational priorities are overdue. This paper presents the results of a scoping review of the scientific literature on Ae. koreicus combined with the outcomes of a multidisciplinary expert workshop held in Trento, Italy, in February 2026, which brought together 41 researchers and practitioners from six European countries with expertise in mosquito surveillance, medical entomology, genomics, ecological modelling and public health practice. Through the literature search we obtained a total of 334 articles, of which 91 were eventually included, all published after 2011. Most of the studies were carried out within Europe, focusing mostly on mosquito surveillance. Building upon the scoping review, the workshop identified key priorities for advancing knowledge and operational responses to Ae. koreicus, including strengthened surveillance in montane and lowland areas, improved characterisation of its vector competence and competitive interactions with co-occurring Aedes species, and more effective communication strategies for engaging the public and citizen scientists in monitoring efforts.
Dengue virus (DENV) nonstructural protein 3 (NS3) is essential for viral replication and host immune evasion. While its protease domain (NS3pro) has been linked to T-cell anergy, its role in inducing regulatory T cells (Tregs) requires further exploration. To analyze the induction of diverse regulatory T-cell populations in BALB/c mice immunized with recombinant rNS3pro proteins from the four DENV serotypes. Mice were immunized with rNS3pro, and splenocytes were stimulated in vitro with homologous proteins. Cytokine expression and T-cell phenotypes-including markers for activation, exhaustion, and cytotoxicity-were analyzed via RT-PCR, ELISA, and flow cytometry. rNS3pro immunization induced a predominantly regulatory-associated response characterized by significant IL-10 expression. A marked expansion of CD4+CD25+ T cells (23.5 %vs. 1.05 % in controls) was observed, encompassing CD25+FoxP3+ regulatory-like T cells, alongside FoxP3-independent subsets expressing CD25+IL-10+ and CD25+TGF-β+. These cells co-expressed cytotoxicity-associated (FoxP3+Perforin+/GzB+) and co-inhibitory (CTLA-4+, PD-1+) markers. Effector CD8+ T-cell proliferation was significantly inhibited and could not be restored by exogenous IL-2. In conclusion, DENV rNS3pro immunization drives a robust expansion of multifaceted regulatory-like T-cell phenotypes. This immunomodulatory response correlates with compromised CD8+ effector proliferation, identifying the NS3 protease domain as a potential player in DENV immune evasion strategies.
Leishmaniasis remains a major neglected tropical disease in the Americas, where transmission involves diverse parasites, reservoirs, and phlebotomine sand fly vectors. Accurate sand fly identification is essential for surveillance, but morphology-based diagnosis may be difficult in closely related taxa and isomorphic females. This study evaluated COI DNA barcoding for identifying sand flies from the Pamplonita River basin, Colombia. Adult sand flies were collected in three ecological settings using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) light traps, Shannon traps, and active searching. Specimens were morphologically examined and processed for DNA extraction, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) amplification, and bidirectional sequencing. Sequences were edited, aligned, screened for stop codons and indels, and analyzed using diversity estimates, Kimura two-parameter (K2P) distances, neighbor-joining (NJ), and PhyML maximum-likelihood (ML) clustering under the General Time Reversible model with invariant sites and gamma-distributed rates (GTR+I+G) with 1,000 bootstrap replicates. Sixty-two study sequences representing seven species were analyzed with three external sequences. The curated alignment contained 65 sequences of 660 bp, with no gaps or ambiguous bases. The study dataset included 24 haplotypes and 185 polymorphic sites. Mean interspecific K2P distances ranged from 3.55% between Pintomyia (Pi.) longiflocosa and Pi. torvida to 19.82% between Psathyromyia (Pa.) shannoni and Pi. evansi. Neighbor-joining and maximum-likelihood analyses recovered species-level clusters consistent with morphological assignments. COI barcoding supported the molecular discrimination of medically relevant sand flies from northeastern Colombia and provides a regional baseline for vector surveillance in an area of epidemiological interest.
Feline infectious peritonitis virus (FIPV) is a lethal feline pathogen with no widely effective prophylactic vaccine available. To address this unmet need, we explored the feasibility of using Toxoplasma gondii (whose definitive host is felids) as a live delivery platform to develop a bivalent vector vaccine. We generated a transgenic T. gondii strain engineered to express and secrete the FIPV spike protein S1 subunit into the parasitophorous vacuole. Immunization in mice confirmed the immunogenicity of this recombinant parasite, which induced specific antibody responses targeting both the T. gondii vector and the FIPV S1 antigen. In vitro neutralization assays revealed limited FIPV-neutralizing capacity in immune sera, with only low-level inhibitory activity observed at the lowest serum dilution, which was markedly inferior to the neutralization potency induced by recombinant S1 protein vaccination. Collectively, these data preliminarily verify the potential of T. gondii as a multivalent antigen delivery vector. This work provides a proof-of-concept framework for a dual-target vaccination strategy intended to mitigate the epidemiological burden of both FIPV and T. gondii in cats, and underpins integrated One Health-oriented disease prevention and control efforts.
Arboviruses are mosquito-borne viruses of major public health importance, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. In Paraguay, dengue (DENV) and chikungunya (CHIKV) viruses are among the most epidemiologically relevant; however, studies integrating mosquito and arbovirus surveillance remain scarce. This study aimed to characterize mosquito assemblage composition across different ecological settings and investigate arbovirus circulation in field-collected mosquitoes. A total of 4,595 mosquitoes (609 pools) were collected between 2013 and 2024 from urban, rural, and Atlantic Forest environments in Paraguay. Twenty-six mosquito species were identified, with Culex quinquefasciatus (55.3%) as the most abundant, followed by Aedes (Ochlerotatus) scapularis (13.3%). Aedes aegypti (7.3%) was mainly associated with urban areas. Diversity analyses showed higher alpha diversity and greater gamma diversity in the Atlantic Forest and lower values in rural areas, whereas high beta diversity indicated substantial species turnover among locations. Molecular screening by real-time RT-PCR detected no evidence of West Nile, Saint Louis encephalitis, Venezuelan equine encephalitis, Mayaro, yellow fever, Zika, or Oropouche viruses. In contrast, A. aegypti pools tested positive for DENV (n=3; 2021 and 2023) and CHIKV (n=3; 2023). Phylogenetic reconstruction confirmed the circulation of DENV-4 Genotype II (lineage B.1.1), DENV-2 Genotype II (F.1.1.2), and CHIKV East/Central/South African (ECSA) lineages in Paraguay, all closely related to human outbreak-associated sequences. These findings provide the first molecular evidence of arbovirus infection in field-collected mosquitoes in Paraguay and emphasize the importance of integrated entomological and viral surveillance.
American tegumentary leishmaniasis (ATL) is an endemic disease in Brazil, but comprehensive reports on its epidemiology and clinical characteristics remain limited. The potential shifts in the disease's epidemiological profile emphasize the need for updated and in-depth studies. In this retrospective longitudinal observational study, we analyzed the epidemiological and clinical features of patients with ATL who received care at the Clinical Hospital Complex of the Federal University of Paraná (CHC-UFPR), a key referral center for the disease in the state of Paraná, southern Brazil, between June 2013 and June 2023. Statistical analyses included χ² goodness-of-fit, Fisher's exact, Shapiro-Wilk, and Kruskal-Wallis tests. A total of 65 patients were included, predominantly male (75.4%), of white ethnicity (90.8%), and having visited endemic regions (49.2%). The majority (70.8%) presented the mucosal form of the disease, followed by the cutaneous form (29.2%). The diagnosis was confirmed through laboratory tests in 75.4% of cases, with biopsy and Montenegro Skin Test being the most common methods. Multiple treatment cycles were administered in 46.8% of cases, with glucantime being the most prescribed drug (58.7%). Adverse effects were observed in 56.5% of patients, primarily involving gastrointestinal and renal complications. Healing rates were 84.8% for mucosal leishmaniasis and 73.7% for cutaneous leishmaniasis. These findings characterize the clinical and therapeutic profile of patients treated at a tertiary referral center in southern Brazil, highlighting the predominance of mucosal disease, the frequent need for repeated treatment, and the occurrence of treatment-related adverse effects in the study population.
Mucosal/mucocutaneous leishmaniasis (ML) is a severe form of tegumentary leishmaniasis (TL). This study analyzed spatiotemporal patterns in the occurrence of ML in Brazil between 2001 and 2023. All ML cases reported to the Brazilian national surveillance system were included. Joinpoint regression models were used to assess temporal trends in ML incidence and in the percentage of ML cases among TL cases (%ML). Spatial scan statistics identified spatial and spatiotemporal clusters of ML incidence at the municipal level, while global and local (LISA) Moran's I statistics evaluated spatial autocorrelation of smoothed municipal %ML. Cases of ML accounted for 6.1% (n=30,192) of all TL cases reported in Brazil. The cumulative incidence of ML was 0.67 cases/100,000 inhabitants. Although ML incidence declined over time, %ML increased markedly between 2020 and 2023. ML occurred in 53.2% of Brazilian municipalities, with higher ML incidence in the Legal Amazon region, where spatial and spatiotemporal high-incidence scan clusters were identified. The smoothed municipal %ML ranged from 0.0% to 52.3% and showed moderate positive spatial autocorrelation (I=0.395; p=0.001). Approximately 10% (n=554) of Brazilian municipalities were located in High-High LISA clusters for this indicator, including areas outside the Legal Amazon, suggesting that a high relative burden of ML is not restricted to this region. Despite its widespread occurrence, ML showed a heterogeneous spatial distribution, with high-incidence areas concentrated in relatively few municipalities. The increasing %ML is concerning and may reflect changes in disease detection and surveillance practices, as well as factors related to diagnosis and treatment, warranting further investigation.
Bovine trypanosomiasis, caused by Trypanosoma vivax, presents a major threat to livestock health, primarily due to the lack of efficient field diagnostic tools. This study aimed to identify potential parasite and host-derived biomarkers through a longitudinal proteomic analysis of serum from sheep experimentally infected with a T. vivax isolate. Utilizing LC-MS/MS and bioinformatics, 154 proteins were identified, comprising 150 host (Ovis aries) and four pathogen proteins. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) demonstrated a clear separation of samples according to infection stages: Control, Infection (15 parasites/field), and Peak Infection (30-60 parasites/field) Among the parasite proteins, TvY486_0014340, TvY486_0040500, and TvY486_0042480 were identified as candidate antigens for future evaluation. In silico analysis revealed these proteins contain multiple B-cell epitopes with no cross-reactivity to related Trypanosoma species, supporting their potential for immunodiagnostic development. Additionally, three host proteins-folate receptor 3 (FOLR3) and complement components C1QA and C1QC-were significantly modulated across all infection phases. The upregulation of FOLR3 likely reflects a compensatory response to parasite-induced anemia, while the downregulation of C1Q components suggests immune evasion strategies. These findings highlight specific parasite antigens and host regulatory patterns that may serve as candidate biomarkers for the diagnosis and monitoring of T. vivax infection, facilitating the development of improved point-of-care assays.
Aedes aegypti is a major vector of arboviral diseases, including dengue, Zika, and chikungunya, posing significant global public health challenges. Effective control strategies, such as the sterile insect technique (SIT), require an accurate and reliable sex sorting system to ensure male only releases. Here, we present a compact deep-learning framework for image-based classification of sex-linked eye-color phenotypes and instar stages of Aedes aegypti larvae, complemented by an independent optical flow analysis of larval locomotor behavior. Video recordings of individual larvae were used to generate annotated datasets for training a convolutional neural network (CNN) to classify four experimental groups. In parallel, dense optical flow analysis quantified larval locomotor activity, producing interpretable kinematic descriptors. The classifier reliably distinguished between all groups across validation and test sets, with inference suitable for real-time deployment on low-power hardware. Motion analysis revealed systematic differences: L4 larvae exhibited higher activity than L3, and red-eye individuals showed slightly elevated movement relative to black-eye counterparts, indicating that developmental stage is the primary determinant of motility, with pigmentation exerting a secondary influence. The proposed framework provides accurate image-based classification while independently characterizing locomotor behavior, thereby improving the biological interpretation of the analyzed groups. The image-based classifier offers a practical tool for automated larval sorting in SIT programs, whereas the independent motion-analysis module provides quantitative behavioral descriptors that may support future studies of mosquito biology and vector-control applications.
Despite the control of Triatoma infestans in Brazil, other vectors remain implicated in the transmission of Chagas disease, making the maintenance of municipal entomological surveillance and health education actions indispensable. This study reports on the colonization of a home by triatomine bugs in a mattress, evidenced when a resident of Salto do Itararé, Paraná, delivered a nymph to the State Health Department in 2025 while she was lying in bed. The insect, identified as Panstrongylus geniculatus, although not infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, had ingested human blood, a particularly worrying finding since another resident of the same household was a chronic carrier of Chagas disease. This case highlights the persistent risk of transmission, emphasizing the critical need for continuous monitoring of species and dissemination of public health information by the competent authorities.
