This study investigated the reading processes of deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) children with cochlear implants (CIs) in comparison to typically hearing (TH) peers using eye-tracking methodology. While prior research on CI users has primarily focused on the level of reading performance, our approach captured word-by-word reading behavior to examine fixation durations, fixation counts, and regressions.Twenty-two DHH children with CIs (14 female; Mage = 10.25 years, SD = 1.31) and 26 TH children (16 female; Mage = 10.5 years, SD = 0.95), silently read an age-appropriate Polish text while their eye movements were recorded. We analyzed eye movements by word type (content vs. function words) and word length.Consistent with established reading research, both groups devoted more attention to content words than function words, and to longer than shorter words as evidenced by more fixations, longer dwell time, and more regressions. Interestingly, however, there were no differences in first fixation duration or average fixation duration. Finally, no significant between-group differences were observed in any eye-tracking metrics, indicating similar cognitive processing during reading.These findings align with the qualitative similarity hypothesis, suggesting that with appropriate support, DHH children with CIs can achieve reading processes comparable to TH peers.Similar first and average fixation durations indicate unimpaired word decoding, while increased fixation counts, regressions, and dwell times for content and longer words reflect higher demands during post-lexical semantic and syntactic integration. The results highlight the value of eye tracking as a sensitive tool for detecting reading strategies, and they underscore the potential of early implantation combined with holistic educational support to promote literacy development.
Although cyber-relationship addiction among deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) college students has become a problem that needs urgent attention, few studies have examined the effects of core self-evaluation on cyber-relationship addiction and its underlying mediating mechanisms in this population. Drawing from the person-affect-cognition-execution model for addictive behaviors, this study aimed to explore the mediating role of anxiety and online self-disclosure in the relationship between core self-evaluation and cyber-relationship addiction among DHH college students. A total of 355 DHH college students participated in this study and completed a survey assessing core self-evaluation, anxiety, online self-disclosure, and cyber-relationship addiction. Results indicated that positive core self-evaluation among DHH college students was associated with a lower risk of cyber-relationship addiction. Additionally, anxiety and online self-disclosure played a serial mediating role in this relationship. These findings contribute to identifying effective intervention strategies to mitigate cyber-relationship addiction among DHH college students.
It is well known that there are not enough American Sign Language-English interpreters in the United States to meet demand. Many interpreters leave the field early in their careers, causing a need for more available, trained, and qualified interpreters. Studies have identified the physical and mental demands of interpreting, as well as burnout, as significant factors contributing to the high turnover rate in the field. Although we are aware of this problem as professionals, we have yet to address why interpreters leave. There is also a need for more setting-specific research over special areas of interpreting, such as in a collegiate environment. This article presents a case study of seven former and current collegiate interpreters and their structural and cultural experiences at a university in the South Central United States. Significant findings include demanding occupational experiences, including the poorly designed contracting structure of the position, a cognitively demanding workload, advocacy and care work roles, and a lack of information and resources.
Children born deaf to hearing parents may be delayed in their social-cognitive development due to their challenges in acquiring linguistic and communicative skills. The present study aims to determine whether this relates to their understanding of pretend actions and how this helps us understand the influence of language on children's social cognition. A total of 166 children (75 nonsigning deaf and hard of hearing and 91 hearing), aged from 3 to 8 years, were administered an expressive vocabulary task, a pretend actions task, and a nonverbal ability test, while their teachers or speech therapists completed two questionnaires, one demographic and one on linguistic-communicative skills. The results showed that the group of deaf and hard of hearing children had difficulties in understanding pretend actions, which were related to their linguistic and communicative skills. The role that language plays in understanding pretend actions and pretend play is discussed in this article, together with its implications for education.
The majority of deaf and hard of hearing students are taught in public schools. Many of these students are taught by itinerant teachers who report their primary areas of instruction are language, reading, and writing (Antia & Rivera, 2016; Luckner & Ayantoye, 2013). The purpose of this qualitative case study was to examine (1) how strategic and interactive writing instruction (SIWI) was implemented by three itinerant teachers of the deaf in one rural, one urban, and one affluent school district and (2) what context-specific variables impacted their writing instruction. Through observations of a unit of their writing instruction for informative writing, scoring their fidelity for that writing unit, and conducting interviews about their instruction, the researchers concluded that the itinerant teacher participants were able to implement SIWI with typical fidelity for teachers in their first year of using this instruction technique. Their unique insights highlighted ways that the interactive instruction principles of the instructional fidelity instrument could be revised to better align with the educational contexts of itinerant teachers. They also reported four main challenges to their writing instruction: working with general education teachers, district-related factors, time, and physical space and organization.
Students who are d/Deaf or hard of hearing (d/Dhh) continue to face persistent literacy challenges, particularly in contexts where early language access and instructional resources are limited. In Saudi Arabia, despite inclusive education reforms, barriers to reading achievement remain. This study explored the instructional challenges teachers encounter and the strategies they employ when teaching reading to d/Dhh learners, drawing on the qualitative similarity hypothesis (QSH), which posits that d/Dhh students require access to the same core literacy components as their hearing peers, and these should be delivered through accessible modalities. Using a qualitative design, semistructured interviews were conducted with 23 teachers from inclusive and specialized educational settings in three major Saudi cities. Thematic analysis revealed five central challenges: limited student vocabulary, insufficient teacher fluency in Saudi Sign Language (SSL), lack of professional development in evidence-based strategies, minimal early childhood language exposure, and the presence of additional disabilities. In response, teachers described adaptive instructional practices aligned with the QSH, including the use of visual supports, sign-enhanced instruction, and individualized scaffolding. These findings underscore the need for systemic investment in teacher preparation, early intervention programs, and inclusive curriculum design. The study contributes to the growing literature on d/Dhh literacy and provides actionable insights for improving instructional equity within the Saudi educational context.
Deaf role models (DRMs) mentor d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) children and their families by sharing their personal experiences of d/Deafness. Ten parents from Australia and New Zealand provided their perspectives on the influence that the inclusion or absence of DRMs had in their lives. Five group experiential themes were identified: DRMs shaping early parental understandings of d/Deafness and clinical interventions, DRMs and hearing allies, DRMs as symbols of representation and normalization, DRMs as valued sources of guidance and holistic support, and DRMs promoting sociolinguistic bilingualism. The findings provide new insights, highlighting the pivotal role of DRMs in reshaping hearing parents' perceptions of d/Deafness, from a medical condition to a culturally rich identity. Policy implications and recommendations include recognizing the importance of early access to DRMs and encouraging a shift from deficit-based thinking to empowerment. The authors position DRMs as key agents in fostering "Deaf gain" and cultural understanding within families.
The purpose of this national study was to investigate educational sign language interpreters' participation in collaborative practices and explore potential barriers to interprofessional practice when serving students who are D/deaf or hard of hearing (D/HH). A survey instrument was utilized to solicit information through Likert scales, multiple-choice, and open-ended questions from 591 educational interpreter participants, and data were triangulated with the collection and analysis of 145 formal job descriptions. Potential barriers to collaboration were identified based on themes that emerged in participants' responses to open-ended questions. Results indicated a high level of collaboration and shared responsibility for supporting language development between various members of educational teams serving D/HH students. However, while 93% of educational interpreter participants reported that they consult with other educational professionals regularly, only 79.3% of formal job descriptions distinctly acknowledged collaboration as an expectation of the position, indicating that additional attention may be needed within the field to formalize and support the important process. Frequently reported work conditions considered to be potential barriers to effective collaboration included a lack of designated space for meetings, limited access to preview instructional materials, inadequate preparation time, and a lack of relevant professional development and feedback. Future research is needed to further explore how improving access to such professional resources may sustain or increase collaborative practices, as well as its impact on outcomes of students who are D/HH.
The reading level of a number of students who are deaf or hard of hearing (DHH) is lower than that of non-DHH students because DHH children generally experience delays in their exposure to language and may also be diagnosed with learning disabilities. This study explored the reading comprehension strategies that first-grade DHH students adopted, with specific attention to the roles that both explicit and implicit instruction play. Using an ethnographic qualitative approach, a teacher and four first-grade DHH students were observed and interviewed to provide insight into the instructional practices and strategies most commonly used by students and teachers of DHH children. The findings revealed that the strategies DHH students employed varied depending on their cultural background and fluency in Saudi Sign Language (SSL). During implicit instruction, students frequently used strategies such as thinking together, activating prior knowledge, and translating Arabic texts into SSL. In contrast, explicit instruction was associated with more structured strategies, such as summarizing in SSL and writing responses based upon the texts. The results demonstrated that retelling and summarizing activities using SSL emerged as a particularly significant strategy for reading comprehension. Future research should examine instructional methods that provide effective support to develop DHH learners' summarization writing skills.
This review reveals the potential application of the Philosophy for Children (P4C) approach, which holds a significant place in the development of language and higher-order thinking skills, for the education of d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) children. The review was conducted with a two-phase approach. In the first phase, 11 research articles encompassing 4,499 participants were systematically reviewed to evaluate studies that determined the effect of P4C on the language and thinking skills of hearing primary school students. The findings established that P4C is an evidence-based practice for developing discourse and language, as well as inquiry skills, and a potentially evidence-based approach for literacy. Moving from the findings of the first phase, a conceptual and pedagogical approach related to the education of d/Dhh children was put forward in the second phase. It was argued that there is a strong theoretical alignment between P4C and frameworks such as the qualitative similarity hypothesis and literate thought. It was concluded that P4C can be a crucial approach for the advanced language use and higher-order thinking skills that d/Dhh children need for academic success. Revealing a significant research gap, the present article outlines an important framework for the integration of P4C into the educational systems of d/Dhh children.
This review article examined the validity of the qualitative similarity hypothesis (QSH) in the context of Turkish d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) students' reading development. The review discussed the reading processes of both Turkish typically developing (i.e., hearing) students and d/Dhh students in a comparative manner. Since there are no empirical studies directly testing the QSH in the Turkish context and no studies examining the related construct of developmental similarity, indirect discussions were conducted based on the findings of selected studies. The extent to which the QSH aligns with the principles of developmental similarity in cognitive (i.e., use of strategies) and language processes, quantitative variability in performance levels, and timing differences was also discussed. The findings also suggest that d/Dhh students can learn in similar ways to their typically developing peers only if appropriate and sufficient instructional support is provided. More longitudinal and experimental studies and evidence are needed to explain the reading developmental processes of Turkish d/Dhh students based on the principles of the QSH.
This qualitative textual analysis explores the information shared on a social media group for parents of deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) children. The authors sought to investigate the type of information parents of DHH children are seeking and receiving from a community on social media related to their child's development. A thematic analysis was conducted on one month's worth of content from the group, and six major themes emerged from participants' posts and threaded comments. These emerging themes and accompanying subthemes provide insight into the immediate needs of parents of DHH children and may help inform the practice of professionals who work with DHH infants, toddlers, and their families. Results from this study may bring awareness to the concerns of parents with DHH children and help professionals best support them, thereby improving the overall early intervention process.
Children with cochlear implants (CIs) have difficulties developing overall language skills due to a lack of neurological adjustment for multimodality inputs. Fortunately, music perception might play a role in strengthening the connection between auditory and motor perception, as language and music have shared neural mechanisms in the left hemisphere of the brain. This review synthesized the recently peer-reviewed studies on the role of music perception in language development for children with CIs by containing the search on pertinent keywords in eight databases following systematic inclusion rubrics. A total of 17 most relevant studies published between 2014 and 2025 were identified. We analyzed the studies focusing on the special role of music perception linked to improved speech perception in children with CIs and the types of musical training that have been found to be effective in improving speech perception and/or spoken language in children with CIs. We analyzed them by the demographics of the participants, music training methods, and language assessment tools, etc. for language development in children with CIs. We concluded the following two major findings: (1) A strong correlation exists between music perception and language development, especially in children with CIs, and (2) music training can potentially bridge the gap in language performance between children with CIs and those with normal hearing by facilitating crossmodal neuroplasticity. The findings of this synthesis suggest that children with CIs may benefit from music perception in early childhood to strengthen their neuroplasticity through visual-motor connectivity through music. The findings of our systematic review highlight the unique role of music perception in bridging language gaps for children with CIs.
Many studies have shown that excellent listening and spoken language outcomes are possible in babies and young children with hearing loss when they have access to a Continuum of Care in the first years of life. This Continuum of Care includes: (1) early identification of hearing loss, (2) family support and engagement, (3) timely fitting of hearing technology, and (4) the support of local professionals trained in audiology, auditory-verbal therapy, and early intervention. Families in low-resource countries face many limitations and challenges in accessing the essential services and support within this Continuum of Care to enable their babies and young children with hearing loss to listen, speak, and reach their full potential. This article discusses some of the issues faced by low-resource countries and describes the approach of the Global Foundation For Children With Hearing Loss to help strengthen care in collaboration with local partners.
The development of literacy skills of d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) children and adolescents has been a long-standing challenge for educators. There is a need for researchers and scholars to investigate this challenge to proffer evidence-based practices. This systematic review focuses on the development of reading for both d/Dhh and, for comparison purposes, typical (hearing) Turkish students. The components under study are the structures of the Turkish language, specifically the interrelations of phonology, morphology, and reading comprehension. Although it is argued that both phonology and morphology contribute to reading comprehension, these components, particularly morphology, play substantial roles in Turkish, which is an agglutinative language. Available research on both typical (hearing) and d/Dhh students are critically analyzed, and recommendations for further instruction and investigation are proffered.
With approximately 40-50% of deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) individuals also having a disability, complex communication needs are particularly prevalent in this population. Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) systems can address these complex communication needs, support language acquisition, and facilitate communicative engagement. This article examines (a) the role of AAC in supporting DHH individuals with disabilities (DHH+), (b) the integration of AAC with sign language, and (c) the relevant considerations when assigning and implementing AAC for this group. The literature reviewed within this article specifically highlighted that effective implementation of AAC for DHH+ individuals who have complex communication needs may be improved by (a) increased diagnostic accuracy, (b) access to a first language, and (c) the development of standardized methods for AAC selection and implementation tailored to the individual.
