The role of zinc on the primary metabolism of Aspergillus parasiticus in relation to aflatoxin biosynthesis was studied. Zinc deficiency impaired growth and metabolism of nucleic acid and protein while stimulating that of lipid. The activities of enzymes of glycolytic cycle were affected indicating that these are zinc dependent enzymes. Impaired glycolytic cycle tends to reduce the level of primary metabolites like pyruvate, citrate and oxaloacetate which trigger aflatoxin formation. During stationary phase these precursors accumulate as these are not used up for the synthesis of secondary metabolites (aflatoxins) due to zinc deficiency. ATP and energy-charge (E.C.) which are important for various physiological processes like growth are reduced in zinc deficiency. Also zinc deficiency results in low levels of AMP which favour synthesis of lipid. Inorganic phosphate accumulated due to zinc deficiency and this may be unfavourable for aflatoxin synthesis.
INTRODUCTION.............................4.......................... .. . 476 FACETS OF PATHOGENICITY THAT CAN BE INFLUENCED BY MICROBIAL SURFACES ............................................................. 476 INFLUENCE ON MICROBIAL SURFACES OF GROWTH CONDITIONS IN VIVO 477 SURFACE COMPONENTS OF MICROORGANISMS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ENTRY TO THE HOST: MUCOUS MEMBRANE INTERACTIONS ............ 479 Bacteria .................................................................... 479 Adherence .................................................................. 479 Competition with commensals .... . ........................................... 480 Resistance to host defense mechanisms in mucus ....... ..................... 481 Penetration............................................................... 481 Viruses ..................................................................... 481 Adherence ................................................................. 481 Competition with commensals .... . ........................................... 482 Resistance to host defense mechanisms in mucus ....... ..................... 482 Penetration............................................................... 482 Fungi....................................................................... 482 Protozoa.................................................................... 482 SURFACE COMPONENTS OF MICROORGANISMS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO MULTIPLICATION IN VIVO ........... ................................. 482 Bacteria .................................................................... 482 Viruses ..................................................................... 483 Fungi....................................................................... 484 Protozoa.................................................................... 484 SURFACE COMPONENTS OF MICROORGANISMS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO INTERFERENCE WITH HOST DEFENSES ....... ......................... 484 Bacteria .................................................................... 484 Interference with humoral defenses ......... ................................ 484 Interference with mobilization of phagocytes ....... ......................... 485 Prevention of contact with phagocytes ......... ............................. 485 Interference with ingestion by phagocytes ................................... 485 Prevention of intracellular digestion by phagocytes ...... .................... 486 Interference with the immune response ........ ............................. 487 Viruses ..................................................................... 487 Interference with humoral defenses .......... ............................... 487 Interference with cellular defenses.......................................... 487 Interference with the immune response ........ ............................. 488 Fungi....................................................................... 488 Protozoa.................................................................... 488 SURFACE COMPONENTS OF MICROORGANISMS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO HOST DAMAGE ......................................................... 489 Bacteria .................................................................... 489 Viruses .................................................................. 490 Fungi....................................................................... 491 Protozoa ............................................................ 491 SURFACE COMPONENTS OF MICROORGANISMS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO HOST AND TISSUE SPECIFICITY ......... ............................. 491 Bacteria .................................................................... 492 Viruses ..................................................................... 492 Adsorption and penetration................................................. 492 Uncoating ................................................................. 493 Assembly .................................................................. 493 Release ................................................................... 493 Fungi and Protozoa.......................................................... 494 CONCLUSIONS............................................................... 494 LITERATURE CITED......................................................... 494
INTRODUCTION.............................................................. 419 Semantic Problems ............................................. 419 Occurrence of Versatile and Specialist Phototrophs, Lithotrophs, and Methylotrophs ...................................................... 421 CHARACTERISTIC ENERGY AND CARBON METABOLISM ....... ............ 423 Energy Metabolism ...................................................... 423 Carbon Metabolism ...................................................... 423 METABOLISM OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BY SPECIALIST PHOTOTROPHS, LITHOTROPHS, AND METHYLOTROPHS ................................. 424 Influence of Organic Compounds on Growth ........... ....................... 424 Assimilation of Organic Compounds ................. ......................... 425 Requirements for the Assimilation of Organic Compounds ....... .............. 427 Fate of Organic Carbon Assimilated by Specialist Strains ....... ............... 427 Substrate Transport and the Specialist Condition............................... 432 OTHER POSSIBLE CAUSES OF SPECIALIST CHARACTERISTICS ...... ...... 433 Regulation of Enzyme Synthesis and Activity .......... ....................... 433 Energy Conservation in Specialist Strains ............. ........................ 434 Specialized Nutritional Requirements ................ ......................... 437 CONCLUSIONS ........................................................... 437 LITERATURE CITED ......................................................... 440
PREVIEW ...................................... 754 PART A-INTRODUCTION ...................................... 755 Cellular Events ...................................... 755 Cell Cycle Types ...................................... 755 Levels of Organization .......................................................-756 Budding-What It Means in Bacteria ...................................... 756 Intercalation .......................................---------------.--.760 Polar growth...............................760 Budding Bacteria as Models for the Study of Morphogenesis and Differentiation 762 PART B-BIOLOGY OF THE CELL CYCLES OF R. VANNIELII ..... ........ 762 Review of Published Information on R. vannielii .............................. 762 Enrichment, Isolation, and Cultivation .................................... 763 Physiological and Biochemical Properties ..................................... 764 Characterization of DNA ................................................... 764 Photopigments .....................................-------------...764 Cytochromes ......................................------------.-.---.--.764 Growth physiology.764........................... . . 764 Cell Cycle Morphology of R. vannielii ..............-.-.---.-...---.....--..765 Synchronous cultures ......................................................-766 Synchrony by filtration .................................. 766 Synchronous Growth of Rhodomicrobium Swarm Cells 767 Assay of "landmark" events in liquid culture ................................ 767 Vegetative Cell Cycle ........................................................-769 Maturation sequence .................................... 769 Reproductive sequence .....................................................-769 Subsequent development .................................... 770 Other Cell Types Formed ...................-.-.-.-.-.-.-.772 "Double-yolk" cells ......................................--.-.-----772 Exospore formation......................--.-.---.........772 Exospores.................. 772 Occurrence and collection...................----------------772 Morphology and formation ....................--.-..----772 Germination and outgrowth .................. 774 Physiological properties .................................................... 774 Fine Structure of Vegetative Cells .................. 777 Fine structure.................. 777 Fine Structure of Exospores ...................-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.782 Synthesis of Chlorophyll, Protein, DNA, and RNA in Synchronized Cells. 788 Chlorophyll synthesis............... 788 Protein synthesis and inhibition ............................------789 RNA synthesis............................................................. 794 DNA synthesis............................................................. 794 Reproduction................................------------------800 CONCLUSION.805................................................. 805 LITERATURE CITED ........................... 805
INTRODUCTION ............................................. 872 INTEGRATION OF BACTERIOPHAGES ................................. 873 Circularization of Phage DNA 873 Insertion and Excision of Phage DNA ....................................... 873 Molecular Interactions of Mu Phage ........................................ 875 Regulation of Phage Integration and Excision.....878 Integration Site Specificity .................................................. 880 Attachment Site Studies .................................................... 881 Linear Insertion of Lambda DNA......... 883 Polylysogens of Lambda.................................................... 884 Formation of Specialized Transducing Phages 885 INTERACTIONS OF INSERTION SEQUENCES AND TRANSPOSABLE ELEMENTS.886 INTEGRATION OF PLASMIDS.891 Hfr Formation .............................................................. 891 F' Derivatives 891 Other Plasmids........ 892 PLASMID COINTEGRATION 893 CONCLUDING REMARKS 4 APPENDIX.. 894 Genetic Markers ............................................................ 894 Genetic Elements ........................... 895 Phenotypic Traits .......................................................... 895 LITERATURE CITED .............. 895
As the decade progresses this prediction is rapidly being realized, and microbial enzymes are becoming increasingly important in such diverse fields as medicine, brewing, and timber preservation. The genus Bacillus has played a major role in this development as evidenced by the distribution of the papers read at the Fifth International Fermentation Symposium, 1976 (64). Of 23 papers in the session devoted to "Microbial Enzymes of Industrial Interest" no less than ten were concerned with enzymes from bacilli. Reasons for the predominance of these bacteria in this area of study are several. First, they comprise a group of chemoorganotrophs that can be easily maintained and cultivated and yet are markedly heterogeneous in character. Psychrophiles, mesophiles, and thermophiles, in addition to alkalophilic, neutrophilic, and acidophilic species are well represented. Furthermore, virtually all 48 species of the genus listed in Bergey's Manual ofDeterminative Bacteriology (92) secrete a variety of soluble extracellular enzymes, which reflects the diversity of the parental habitats. Amylases that can liquefy starch under pressure at 11000 (194) and proteases that are stable and active at pH 12.0 (6) are extreme examples of enzyme adaption. This article will attempt to review the recent literature concerned with the characterization and properties of the exoenzymes synthesized by the bacilli and the control and mechanisms of their synthesis. It is restricted to this genus because the commercial importance of extracellular enzymes and academic interest in the process of sporulation have prompted a considerable amount of research into this general area. Nevertheless, in the final section I have attempted to equate our present knowledge of exoenzyme synthesis in procaryotes other than
INTRODUCTION.............................................................. 543 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ANTIVIRAL STATE ........... .................... 544 Interferon Binding ................... ............................. 544 Development of Antiviral Activity................................. 546 LOCUS OF THE INTERFERON-INDUCED INHIBITION OF VIRUS GROWTH. . 547 Evidence that Interferon Treatment Inhibits Virus Uncoating ....... ........... 547 Evidence that Interferon Treatment Inhibits Transcription of the Viral Genome. 547 Evidence that Interferon Treatment Inhibits Viral Protein Synthesis ..... ...... 550 Observations in virus-infected cells ........................... 551 Observations in cell-free systems ....... .................... 552 Evidence that Interferon Treatment Inhibits Terminal Events in the Replication Cycle of Murine Leukemia Viruses ........ ................. 557 INTERFERON TREATMENT IS INEFFECTIVE IN SYSTEMS IN WHICH THE SV40 GENOME IS INTEGRATED INTO AN INTERFERON-RESISTANT VIRUS OR A HOST GENOME ........................... 559 DISCUSSION ............................. 560 LITERATURE CITED........................... 562
INTRODUCTION .............................................................. METHODS FOR STUDY ...................................................... Isolation and Cultivation Techniques ......................................... Gas Chromatographic Analysis ............................................... GENERAL PROPERTIES ................................................... Species Characteristics .................................................... Selective Enrichment of Genera .............................................. Morphological Variation ..................................................... Fine Structure.............................................................. Coccus-type cells ......................................................... Sarcina-type cells .......................................................... Rod-type cells ............................................................. Spirillum-type cells ........................................................ Taxonomy ................................................................... PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS................................................. Intermediary Metabolism .................................................... Unique biochemical components ............................................ Methane synthesis............; Nature of Autotrophic Growth in Methanobacterium thermoautotrophicum ...... ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS .................................................... Activities in Nature .......................................................... Microbial Interactions ....................................................... ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................... LITERATURE CITED.........................................................
INTRODUCTION ..................................................... 2 OCCURRENCE OF ZYMOMONAS AND HISTORY OF ISOLATIONS ..... ....... 2 Ciders and Perries ..................................................... 2 Fermenting Agave Sap ...................., 5 Beer.................... 5 Fermenting Palm Sap.................... 6 Fermenting Sugarcane Sap ......................... 8 Ripening Honey ............................ 9 Some Technological Applications ......................... 9 Therapeutic Use ............................ 10 History of Individual Strains ......................... 10 DETECTION, ISOLATION, AND IDENTIFICATION OF THE GENUS ZYMOMONAS ........................ 10 Detection ........................ 10 Isolation.................................................................... 10 Identification................................................................ 11 Some Commonly Used Media and Growth Conditions ....... ................... 11 TAXONOMY OF ZYMOMONAS................................................. 13 Numerical Analysis of the Phenotype .......... ............................... 13 DNA Base Composition and DNA Genome Size ........ ........................ 15 Genome-DNA Relatedness ................ .................................... 15 Similarity of Protein Electropherograms ......... ............................. 16 Infrared Spectra of Intact Cells............................................... 16 Serology ................................................................ 16 Classification and Nomenclature ............ ................................. 18 Relationship Between Zgmomonas and Other Genera ....... ................... 20 PHENOTYPICAL DESCRIPTION: MORPHOLOGY, GROWTH, PHYSIOLOGY, AND BIOCHEMISTRY ............... ................................. 22 The Cell ................................................................ 22 Cell morphology ........................................................... 22 Macromorphology ......................................................... 22 Cellular composition ....................................................... 22 Resting cells and starvation ............... ................................. 23 Growth Response to Different Conditions ......... ............................ 23 Growth in some ordinary media ........... ................................. 23 Growth in the liquid synthttic medium of Kluyver and Hoppenbrouwers ...... 23 Growth at different pH values ............. ................................. 23 Growth at different temperatures ........... ................................ 24 Thermal death point ....................................................... 24 Growth in the presence of ethanol ........... ............................... 24 Growth in high glucose concentrations ...................................... 24 Growth in the presence of KCN ............................................. 24 Growth in the presence of NaCl ........... ................................. 24 Growth in the presence of 0.01% Acti-dione ................................. 24 Growth in the presence of oxgall ............ .................... 24 Growth in the presence of 0.1% 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride ..... ...... 24 Growth in the presence of 0.01% thallium acetate ........ .................... 25 Growth in the presence of 0.001% cadmium sulfate ....... ................... 25 Growth in the presence of the vibriostatic agent 0/129 ........................ 25 Tolerance to SO .................... ........................................ 25 Growth in the presence of dyes ................... .......................... 25 Reduction of dyes and HgC12 .............................................. 25 Growth in the presence of antibiotics ............. .......................... 25 Carbohydrate Metabolism .................................................... 25 Metabolism of glucose and fructose .............. ........................... 25 Metabolism of sucrose: fermentation and levan formation ...... .............. 29 Other carbon sources ...................................................... 29 Formation of acetaldehyde................................................. 30
INTRODUCTION.............................................................. 568 PROPERTIES OF PROCARYOTIC RPase ............ ......................... 569 Subunit Structure ......................................................... 569 Functions of the Subunits .................................................... 570 Genetics of the RPase Subunits ............................................... 570 Accessory Regulatory Factors ........................ ........................ 572 Recognition Sites on DNA for RPase and Accessory Regulatory Factors ..... ... 573 RPase ROLE IN PROCARYOTIC DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEMS ...... ......... 575 T4 Phage Development ........................................................ 575 T7 Phage Development ....................................................... 581 Lambda Phage Development ................................................ 582 B. subtilis Phage SP01 Development ............... ........................... 583 B. subtiis Sporulation....................................................... 584 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................... 586 LITERATURE CITED......................................................... 587
(3-Lysin is the name that Pettersson proposed to distinguish this thermostabile bactericidal component of serum from Buchner's alexin or a-lysin (51). He defined (8-lysin as the bactericidal substance found in normal serum that resisted inactivation when heated to 56°C for 30 min. According to this definition, there are at least three different ,3-lysins found in normal serum; these consist of lysozyme, ,B-lysin from platelets, and (8-lysin of nonplatelet origin. The first of these, lysozyme, is a single entity which is well defined in regard to its chemical and biological properties. The other two types of (3lysins are not readily distinguished from each other, and each could be composed of several distinct molecules. The ,B-lysin of platelet origin may be similar or identical to plakin (23). The (8-lysin of nonplatelet origin may include the bactericidal cationic proteins isolated from leukocyte lysosomes (64-66). In this review, attention will be focused on the (3-lysin of platelet origin, which will be referred to as "platelet (3lysin."
Attention is drawn to the long-term effects of atmospheric contaminants in general (and cigarette smoke in particular) on immunological control mechanisms that are accepted as playing a vital role in the maintenance of health. The review argues that a hostile environment within the respiratory tract created by inhalation of air contaminants compromises local immunological function in the short term, and ultimately depresses systemic immunological function. Whether such a decline in immunological homeostasis is due directly to toxicity, or indirectly to accelerated aging of susceptible elements of the immune system, is speculative. The changes observed in both man and experimental animals exposed for long periods to air contaminants in many respects parallel those associated with normal aging and may represent an acceleration of the process of senescence. Specific biological effects of smoking, air pollution and immune functions in man and animal models are reviewed. The precise mechanism(s) by which air contaminants affect immunological function remains speculative, but the relative resistance of specified-pathogen-free animals to these agents infers a central role for the hosts' normal bacterial flora in the process.
INTRODUCTION.856 TRANSPORT MECHANISMS IN BACTERIA .................................. 856 ACTIVE AND EXCHANGE GROUP TRANSLOCATION OF SUGARS CATALYZED BY THE BACTERIAL PTS .................................... 857 PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF THE PTS ................................. 859 DISTRIBUTION OF TIE PTS IN THE PROCARYOTIC WORLD ...... ........ 862 REGULATION OF GENES CODING FOR THE PROTEIN CONSTITUENTS OF THE PTS IN S. TYPIMfUR1UM AND IL COLI ............................... 864 PROPERTIES OF A FRUCTOSE-SPECIFIC PTS IN PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA ............................................................... 866 PROPERTIES OF A MANNITOL-SPECIFIC PTS IN S. AURAN7IA ............ 866 PROPOSED PATHWAY FOR THE EVOLUTION OF THE EUBACTERIAL PTS 868 CONCLUSIONS ............................................................... 870 LITERATURE CITED ......................................................... 870
