The epizootic disease situation in Germany remains tense due to African swine fever (ASF) and highly pathogenic avian influenza (AI). A well-designed biosecurity concept is currently the onFy way to prevent the introduction of epizootic diseases into farms. However, the effectiveness of biosecurity measures is difficult to assess in practice. It can onFy be demonstrated by the absence of epizootic diseases. This study aimed to investigate whether biosecurity level has a measurable effect on the two animaF heaFth parameters examined, namely animaF losses and slaughterhouse observations. For this purpose, an online survey was conducted among German pig and poultry farmers, collecting both the biosecurity measures implemented and the corresponding animaF heaFth data. No statistically significant differences in these animal health parameters were found between high and [ow biosecurity Fevek examined. However, the recorded anima[ heaFth parameters appeared to be of limited use in reflecting smaFF differences in biosecurity Fevek, a [though the lack of statistical significance does not necessarily imply the absence of actual effects. Possible explanations include the relatively high level of animal heaFth on the participating farms, the comparatively small sample size and the strong influence of other factors, such as feeding, management and housing conditions, on animaF heaFth.
The admission criteria for veterinary medicine students in Germany were changed in 2020, with the elimination of the waiting period quota and other assessment procedures and the reintroduction of the Test for Medical Studies (TMS). A nationwide online survey was conducted to investigate whether this resulted in changes in the educational background of successful applicants. Responses from 1,525 veterinary medicine students were evaluated, corresponding to a response rate of 24%. Both before and after the change, almost all participants (97%) had obtained a general higher education entrance qualification. There were also no differences between the two cohorts with regard to high school grades or the proportion of first-generation students. As of 2020, 64% of survey participants had taken part in the vo[untary TMS. Those who had not taken part either considered it unnecessary due to their high school graduation grades, were unaware of the TMS or [earned about it too [ate. Students who were admitted under the old procedure were slightly less likely to had completed vocational training before starting their studies than students who began their studies in 2020 (34.1% and 38.7%, respectively; p=0.094). In the cohorts from 2020 onwards, vocational training as veterinary nurse have completed significantly more often while less persons had completed vocational training that was not recognized for veterinary studies (p <0,001). Frequently named reasons forvocational training were an inadequate high school grade for veterinary studies or the desire to gain professional experience. Most participants supported weighting completed externships more heavily in the admission process. Except for the higher rate ofvocational training as veterinary nurses, the results show that the changed admission procedure did not result in sig nificant differences in the educational background of participating students who successfully applied for veterinary studies during the study period.
African swine fever (ASF) is a globally relevant animal disease that has gained increasing importance in recent years. In addition to domestic pig populations, wild boar are involved in outbreaks in many countries and can serve as a reservoir for the virus. This results in complex contamination scenarios for plant-based feed and enrichment materials, which are further aggravated by the high tenacity of the virus. In light of this, the present study investigated the persistence of ASF virus (ASFV) in chopped grass as well as in grass and corn silage. To this end, samples were experimentally contaminated with ASFV and stored for up to 180 days at temperatures ranging from -20 degrees C to 37 degrees C. Detection was performed byqPCR (viral genome) and by virus isolation (infectious virus). Although viral genome was detectable in all silages and in most grass samples throughout the study period, but infectious virus was only recovered in a few cases -mainly within the first hours after contamination. The results indicate that chopped grass and silages do not support long-term persistence ofASFV and may even exert inhibitory effects. These findings are of high relevance for risk assessment and the development of biosecurity measures along feed supply chains. Thus, the study's findings help to improve the way infection risks from contaminated feed in pig production are assessed and reduced.
African swine fever (ASF) represents a significant global threat to pig production. While transmission in Europe mainly occurs via direct contact, the potential role of blood-feeding arthropods in mechanical transmission remains controversial. This study aimed to systematically assess the infectivity of the ASF virus (ASFV) following ingestion by selected arthropod species, namely Aedes albopictus, Stomoxys calcitrans, and flies from the family Tabanidae, in order to provide a robust scientific basis for evaluating alternative transmission routes. To this end, qPCR analyses and virus isolation experiments were conducted to determine the persistence of the virus within these arthropods under different temperature conditions. Additionally, an animal transmission experiment usingAedes albopictus was performed to ascertain whether oral ingestion of infectious arthropods can facilitate virus transmission to pigs. The findings of this study are intended to enhance our understanding of the role of arthropods in ASF transmission and to inform the development of targeted prevention and control strategies.
The shortage of livestock veterinarians is discussed by many peopFe as it threatens animal welfare. Based on this background, the aim of this study was to find out how many graduates could imagine working in cattFe medicine after their studies and which factors influenced this decision. Through an online survey, prospective veterinarians of the graduating year 2023 were questioned. The main emphasis of this paper was the evaluation of open text responses. Overall, answers of 157 participants were analyzed, which corresponds to a response rate of 17%. More than half of the respondents (54%, n=85) stated they could not or only bard/ imagine working in cattle medicine. Besides wanting to do more diagnostic and individual animal treatment in their future veterinary work, the main reasons were moral conflicts and lack of interest in the species. The resuFts showed that personal attitudes towards cattle husbandry correlated significantly with their willingness to work in buiatrics. Furthermore, the perception of working conditions in cattle medicine was often worse than in other curative areas. Nevertheless, some peopFe that had not aspired working with cattle before their studies could imagine working in this area after finishing their degree. Especially, working experience outside of university had a positive impact on that decision. The participants appreciated working with animals and doing the curative work by themselves. Based on these resuFts approaches can be developed to attract more perspective veterinarians to cattFe medicine.
This study investigated the clinical course of Calicophoron daubneyi infection in experimentally infected sheep. Three helminth-free White Bavarian Alpine ewe lambs aged 7 to 10 months were infected with 150 C. daubneyi metacercariae each, while two lambs served as uninfected controls. All animals were housed without any access to pasture and monitored daily for clinical signs. Weekly blood samples were analysed for biochemical and haematological parameters. Faecal samples were examined using the Flukefinder (R) technique. Egg excretion began in two infected lambs at 86 days post infection (p. i.), but only persisted in one animal, lasting longer than 30 months. In the other infected lamb, the patency ended after the first shedding. One inoculated lamb showed no egg excretion and was excluded from the analysis. No clinical signs were observed in any of the animals during the study. The average daily weight gain from day 1 to day 108 p. i. was 84.5 gin infected lambs and 108.5 gin control lambs (P=0.421). Blood parameters remained largely within reference ranges, with no significant differences between infected and non-infected lambs. These results indicate that infection with a low number of C. daubneyi metacercariae does not lead to clinical paramphistomidosis nor abnormalities in haematology or clinical chemistry.
High pathogenicity avian influenza (HPAI) is a fatal avian disease, which is associated with high mortality and massive economic losses worldwide. Yet despite apparently identical initial conditions, some pouFtry farms are repeatedly affected, while others have never experienced an outbreak. This review summarizes the most important risk factors that are non-modifiable through routine biosecurity practices for the occurrence of HPAI in pouFtry frocks identified since 2018. These comprise numerous different individual aspects, which were summarized in nine superordinate categories: host characteristics, factors related to the barn, farms in vicinity, anthropogenic factors, vegetation, weather, wild birds, water bodies and others. Raising awareness of these factors and promoting the implementation ofsuitable mitigation measures can play a key role in reducing avian influenza (AI) outbreaks in pouFtry.
The study of veterinary medicine in Germany includes extramural practical placements, in which veterinarians as providers for clinical practical training contribute significantly to the training of students. The aim of this study was to record the experiences and needs of veterinary preceptors both as teachers and as [earners in order to create a basis for a tailor-made continuing education program for didactic qualification. To this end, guided expert interviews were conducted between March and July 2024 with ten veterinary preceptors from various fields of activity. The interviews were transcribed, anonymized, and evaluated using Mayring's qualitative content analysis. The respondents described their role in particular in introducing students to everyday working life, teaching theoretical, practical, and communication skills, and promoting motivation, self-care, and a professional self-image. The challenges identified were the heterogeneous prior knowledge of the students and deficits in university education, which had to be compensated for in the extramural practical training. With regard to their own learning needs, the veterinary preceptors emphasized the importance of practical and application-oriented content, the influence of teachers, interactivity, and the desire for time-and cost-efficient and flexible continuing education formats. These results provide indications for the potential content of a didactic continuing education program for veterinary preceptors as placement providers for clinical practical training. Methodologically, such a program should be practice-oriented, case-based, and interactive, offer opportunities for collegial exchange, and be compatible with professional activities in terms of time and organization.
Characterised by changing meat consumptions and the implementation of Delegated Regulation (EU) 2021/1374, which amends Regulation (EC) No 853/2004 on slaughter at the holding of provenance, mobile slaughter has become increasingly important in recent years. As part of the project "Hofnahe Schlachtung im Dialog", a nationwide online survey was carried out for the first time to investigate the implementation of mobile slaughter in Germany. Moreover, potential opportunities, risks and outstanding issues were to be identified from the perspective of the various professional groups involved. To this end, three online surveys were conducted among veterinarians, farmers and butchers. Over the course of the survey period (20 December 2022-10 March 2023), a total of 258 individuals from 15 federal states completed the surveys in their entirety. Of these respondents, 157 (61%) identified as veterinarians, 75 (29%) as farmers and 26 (10%) as butchers. Among the veterinarians, 137 had already gained experience with mobile slaughter. Of these, 94 had already accompanied mobile slaughters, with the majority (94%) involved in on-farm slaughters using a mobile unit. A minority of respondents (22%) had attended mobile slaughters in a mobile abattoir (multiple answers possible). The survey indicates that the primary motivations for farmers to engage in mobile slaughter are to enable a more humane approach to slaughter (98%) and to assume responsibility for their animals until the end (100%). Effective collaboration between all stakeholders was cited as a key factor for achieving animal welfare compliance in mobile slaughter.
Coronaviruses play an important role in gFobaF infections of both humans and animals, by causing species-specific morbidity and/or by their zoonotic potential. The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which emerged in 2019, triggered a gFobaF pandemic and posed a major challenge for infectious and intensive care units. The difficulty in combating the virus in the body lies in its high mutation rate as weFF as in its capacity of immune evasion, which make it possible for the virus to escape from the host's own immune defenses. In feFine medicine it is feFine coronavirus (FCoV) that poses a specific threat to the cat population by causing so-called FeFine Infectious Peritonitis (HP) upon spike protein mutation. Once kicked-off the course of Fl P s inevitably fatal if modern antiviral therapies are not available. The mutated FCoV also effectively evades the host's immune system. Moreover, it misdirects the immune attack towards damaging the cat's body which leads to the prototypical P pathology. Notably, immunopathoFogicaF mechanisms appear to contribute very much to both Fong-Corona-virus-disease(COVID) and post-COVID syndromes. This article provides an overview of the current state of knowledge of the immune evasion mechanisms of the two viruses.
The use of antibiotics in companion animals is a key One Health concern, as antimicrobial-resistant bacteria can be transmitted between animals and humans, limiting treatment options in both veterinary and human medicine. This study aimed to assess whether routine data from veterinary practices are suitable for establishing an antibiotic monitoring system for dogs, cats, and horses. We analyzed over 3.7 million consultation records from 106 practices (2018-2023) and compared three quantification methods: (a) the proportion of consultations involving antibiotic treatment, (b) the number of Used Daily Doses (nUDD), and (c) the number of Defined Daily Doses (nDDD). Cats had the highest median proportion of antibiotic-treated consultations, while horses had the lowest. Overall, practice classifications into low, medium, or high antibiotic use were largely consistent across the three indicators. The nDDD could be calculated for most cases but required numerous assumptions regarding dosage and standard animal weights. The nUDD relied on standard treatment durations due to the lack of documented therapy lengths. In contrast, the proportion of antibiotic-treated consultations was fully calculable from routine data and closely aligned with the other indicators. Given its simplicity, transparency, and full data availability, this indicator appears most suitable - at least during the implementation phase of a monitoring system. However, for comprehensive surveillance and antimicrobial stewardship, future systems should also integrate diagnostic information and antimicrobial classes to support prudent use and resistance prevention more effectively.
In Europe, there is no legal limit for the somatic cell count in goat milk. The published literature gives widely varying values for the physiological somatic cell count in goat milk and changes in somatic cell count can be attributed to various influences. The significance of somatic cell count as an indicator of mastitis is therefore unclear. The present study investigated potentially influential factors on the somatic cell count in clinically healthy dairy goats. For this purpose, milk recording data (81,667 records), collected from 6,879 goats from 70 Bavarian farms in 2017 and 2018, were analysed. The analysis was carried out using the statistical programme RStudio, examining correlations between the logarithmically transformed somatic cell count (somatic cell score = SCS) and the parameters breed, month, day in lactation, lactation number, milk yield and the milk constituents protein, fat, lactose and urea. The highest correlation (chisq value 8,476.06) with the SCS was found for lactose, while the lowest correlation was found for breed (chisq value 38.14). The parameters day in lactation, lactation number, milk fat and milk protein correlated positively, and the parameters milk yield, milk lactose and milk urea correlated negatively with the SCS. All examined correlations were statistically significant (p<0.05). Some of the correlations can be explained by the potential presence of subclinical mastitis, albeit this hypothesis could not be further investigated as bacteriological examinations were outwith the scope of this study.
The euthanasia of horses is a part of the professionaF Fife of practicing veterinarians. The challenges in the context with euthanasia and the emotional impact on the performing veterinarians have been scarcely investigated in Germany. A survey among practicing veterinarians in 2022/2023 addressed the questions whether euthanasia represents an emotional burden, which difficulties young professionals face and whether the interaction with horse owners during euthanasia [eaves room for improvement. The questionnaire was divided into the sections (i) demographics of the veterinarians, (ii) current professionaF environment, (iii) personal experiences in performing euthanasia, (iv) subjective assessment of these experiences and (v) finally a subjective assessment of the euthanasia-related training offered within the German veterinary curriculum. The majority of the 140 responders included in the statistical analysis were women. The three working environments clinics, practices and mobile practices were nearly evenly represented. Veterinarians with Fess than six years of practicaF experience was the most represented group (n = 57, 39.3%). Half of the participants classified euthanasia of a horse as an emotional burden. This was significantly influenced by gender, working environment, and practicaF experience. Participants felt inadequately prepared especially for the communicative aspects of euthanasia at time of graduation from veterinary school. Even though they considered the processing of euthanasia to be increasingly manageable with developing practicaF experience, the topic of euthanasia should be more intensively integrated into the German curriculum, with emphasis on communicative and socio-psychological aspects. The authors recommend establishing postgraduate training modules and explicit guidelines for the implementation of horse euthanasias.
Encephalitis affects both humans and animals and is often characterised by behavioural changes, incoordination and seizures. The causes of many encephalitides remain unknown, making the discovery of new pathogens critical for future diagnostics and therapy. Rustrela virus (RusV, species Rubivirus strelense, family Matonaviridae) was first identified by metagenomics using high-throughput sequencing during an outbreak of encephalitis in several animals kept at a zoo in northern Germany. Its genome is very similar to that of rubella virus, which was previously thought to have no relatives in animals. Real-time RT-PCR was used to track the distribution of RusV in the affected zoo, and the yellow-necked mouse (Apodemus flavicollis) was identified as a possible reservoir host. Follow-up studies in small mammals in Germany supported the role of the yellow-necked mouse as a RusV reservoir. RusV was also associated with additional cases of encephalitis in diverse zoo animals in Germany and was identified as the cause of the previously unexplained "staggering disease" in domestic cats. This extended the known geographical distribution of RusV to Sweden and Austria, with investigations in Sweden also suggesting the wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) as an additional potential reservoir. The surprising detection of a new strain of RusV in a cougar (Puma concolor) in North America indicates that RusV-like pathogens may be globally distributed, with other regionally occurring small mammals acting as reservoirs. Future research should elucidate the virus-host interactions, geographic distribution, genetic diversity and zoonotic potential of RusV.
Emergency slaughter refers to the slaughter of an acutely injured but otherwise healthy animal outside a slaughterhouse when transport is not feasible for animal welfare reasons. The absence of contraindications to emergency slaughter, confirmed during ante-mortem inspection, is validated by a veterinary certificate issued by an official veterinarian. This retrospective study aimed to investigate the occurrence and reasons of emergency slaughter in cattle, as documented in veterinary certificates issued by official veterinarians. A total of 612 veterinary certificates from a German slaughterhouse, covering the period from October 2 degrees 19 to January 2022, were analyzed. These certificates represented cattle from 61 farms (n=601;11 certificates with no farm information), with the number of emergency slaughters per farm ranging from one to 71. Thirty-four veterinarians issued the certificates, with each certifying between one and 136 emergency slaughters (average:9.9). The most common diagnoses were fractures (28.7%, n=174), other traumatic injuries (27.8%, n =169), and ruptures (23.9%, n =145). The majority of cattle (37.0%, n =184) were slaughtered within one hour of ante-mortem inspection. These findings emphasize that emergency slaughter can be an effective measure to alleviate animal distress in cases of acute injury, provided that appropriate facilities and support are available for both farmers and veterinarians.
For many decades, Borna disease virus i (BoDV-1) has been known in parts of Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Switzerland as the causative agent of Borna disease in animals. It is feared by livestock farmers as the disease is associated with a high case-fatality rate. However, it was not until 2018 that it was proven that the virus can also cause severe, non-purulent and usually fatal encephalitis in humans and therefore has zoonotic potential. The only currently confirmed reservoir host for BoDV-1 is the bicolored white-toothed shrew (Crocidura leucodon). It can excrete the virus via saliva, urine and faeces, without developing clinical disease itself. Horses, sheep and New World camelids (alpacas, llamas) in particular, as well as a number of other mammals, including humans, are susceptible to BoDV-1 infection. They act as so-called dead-end hosts and, according to current knowledge, do not shed the virus. The transmission routes from shrews to deadend hosts have not yet been clarified. A link between psychiatric diseases in humans and BoDV-1 infection has now been disproved. In this review, we provide an overview of the virological and diagnostic aspects of BoDV-1, the clinical symptoms in animals and humans, epidemiology, transmission and possible preventive measures.
Over millions of years, viruses have also permanently altered their hosts' genomes. It has long been known that eukaryotic genomes contain copies of virus genomes or fragments thereof. These "viral fossils" are termed endogenous viral elements (EVE). Retroviruses are known for leaving remnants during their life cycle with an obligate genome integration, so called endogenous retroviral elements (ERV). Viral fossils can serve in antiviral defence of the host, and they can acquire other or new functions in the course of evolution. The field of paleovirology investigates EVE and provides insights into the diversity of ancient viruses and the complexity of virus-host coevolution. This aids in virus discovery and exploration of their respective host ranges. The recent advance of genome sequencing in the past decade led to the discovery of numerous EVE in mammals originating also from non-retroviruses, including bornaviruses (family Bornaviridae). The discovery of endogenous bornavirus-like elements (EBL) in numerous vertebrate genomes was surprising but enabled investigation on coevolution of bornaviruses with vertebrate hosts. Since EVE can mediate antiviral defence, and bornaviruses, such as zoonotic Borna disease virus i (BoDV1), can cause fatal meningoencephalitis in animals and humans, research into bornavirus viral fossils is of special interest. This article gives an overview on the origin and significance of EVE, current research and knowledge gaps regarding EBL, and their role in host physiology and pathomechanisms of virus infections. It also focusses on small mammals, such as rodents and insectivores, which are used as animal models and serve as virus reservoir hosts.
Mice and rats in food retail stores are a recurring problem and jeopardise product quality and consumer health. Numerous infectious diseases can be transmitted directly or indirectly to humans by these rodents. It is the task and responsibility of the food business operator to protect the products on sale and the health of consumers. Politicians and the authorities must provide them with the necessary means and legal regulations to do so. According to current knowledge and experience, the best possible protection of consumers against rodent-borne diseases in food retailing can be achieved with a regularly applied combination of traps, rodenticides and preventive measures.
Hantaviruses of the family Hantaviridae are enveloped viruses with a three-segmented negative-sense RNA genome that are found worldwide in rodents and other small mammals. While the persistent infection of the reservoir host is predominantly asymptomatic, many hantaviruses can cause severe disease after zoonotic transmission to humans, such as hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) in Eurasia and hantavirus-induced (cardio-) pulmonary syndrome (HCPS) in the Americas. The severity of the disease is probably dependent on the interaction between the particular virus and the hosts' innate immune response. Innate immunity represents an initial barrier against invading pathogens and enables non-specific detection and control of the infection via evolutionary conserved patterns and mechanisms. While hantaviruses are capable of effective inhibition or evasion of these mechanisms in their respective reservoir host, this evolutionary adaption is lacking following infection of other hosts such as humans. As a consequence, a pronounced immune response is induced, which ultimately leads to virus clearance, but also plays a crucial role in hantavirus-induced vascular pathogenesis. The question of how hantavirus replication activates innate immunity, by which mechanisms the viruses counteract it and how the antiviral immune response affects virus replication and the homeostasis of infected tissues is therefore crucial to understanding the pathogenesis of hantaviruses. Since their discovery in 1976, numerous interactions between hantaviruses and the innate immune response have been identified. However, many questions remain unanswered, particularly with regard to the molecular mechanisms of immune activation in different host species and the differences between high and low pathogenic hantaviruses.
Pathogens can play a crucial role in competition between introduced and native species. In this literature review, we provide an overview of the state of knowledge on pathogens and diseases in tree squirrels (family Sciuridae) and use the red- squirrel (Sciurus vu/garis) and grey squirrel (Sciurus caro/inensis) paradigm in the UK to illustrate how pathogens play a crucial role in displacing native species in certain ecosystems. Our research identified 118 studies focussing on viruses such as squirrelpox virus (SQPV), adenovirus or bornavirus, followed by publications on parasites and bacteria such as Borrelia spp. and Anaplasma spp. Comparative studies on the pathogen spectrum in squirrels in native and introduced areas are largely lacking: in one study, a small number of grey squirrels in the USA and Great Britain were tested for SQPV; in another study, grey squirrels from the USA, Scotland and Italy were tested for polyoma and herpes viruses. The presented overview of the red-grey squirrel paradigm shows that it took decades before the role of pathogens in the disappearance of red squirrels was recognised and quantified. This also emphasises that species conservation in terms of competition and pathogens/diseases is linked to intact ecosystems and their regulating effects, and how crucial our relationship with nature and the management of landscapes and non-native species is in these interactions. Lastly, our review raises the question of how many, as yet unknown, cases there are of other species with declining populations in which pathogens play a critical role. In addition, the review emphasises the need for proactive monitoring and surveillance when non-native and native species compete.
