The tissue regeneration, especially the tympanic membrane regeneration, remains a significant challenge in otorhinolaryngology, necessitating the development of the advanced biomaterials. This study evaluates the biocompatibility and biodegradation of three novel multi-layer polymer scaffolds: KPC (carboxymethyl cellulose/polyethylene oxide/polyvinylpyrrolidone/chitosan), PHC (pullulan/hyaluronic acid/chitosan), and HCA (hyaluronic acid/chitosan/alginate), that designed as biomimetic matrices for tissue repair. The materials were subcutaneously implanted into Wistar rats for 21st and 45th days, with histological evaluation of the peri-implant fibrous capsule. All polymeric matrices underwent biodegradation, with a chronic aseptic inflammatory response characterized by macrophage and lymphocyte infiltration within the fibrous capsule. However, the severity and dynamics of the inflammation were highly dependent on material content. The KPC matrix induced the mildest cellular reaction, which significantly subsided by the day 45th, accompanied by the formation of mature collagen layers and an absence of giant multinucleated foreign body giant cells. In contrast, PHC and HCA matrices provoked more pronounced and sustained inflammation, with PHC showing intensification at the later point linked to accelerated bioresorption and the presence of numerous spherical degradation products. Mast cell involvement was minimal for KPC but notable within the capsule for PHC and HCA at the 45th day. In conclusion, while all tested composites are biodegradable, the KPC formulation demonstrates superior biocompatibility with a self-limiting inflammatory response, making it the most promising candidate for further development of regenerative implant for middle ear reconstruction.
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder marked by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Its clinical features include motor symptoms such as tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability. The pathophysiology of PD involves oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment, neuroinflammation, protein misfolding, and aberrant alpha-synuclein aggregation, which disrupt dopaminergic signaling pathways. Biomarkers such as α-synuclein, DJ-1, neurofilament light chain, and imaging biomarkers such as DAT-SPECT are being studied for early diagnosis, evaluation of disease progression, and therapy monitoring. Although advancements have been made, current options-such as dopamine replacement therapy, deep brain stimulation, and physiotherapy-remain largely symptomatic, carry long-term side effects, and fail to halt disease progression. Nanotechnology advancements have brought a major paradigm shift in the management of PD. Curcumin, Resveratrol, and EGCG are bioactive compounds with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. However, their clinical use is limited because of poor bioavailability and stability. Nanocarrier systems such as liposomes, dendrimers, and polymeric nanoparticles improve targeted delivery through the blood-brain barrier. This helps in reducing systemic toxicity and enhancing therapeutic effectiveness. The therapeutic mechanism of these nanoformulations mainly involves free radical scavenging, modulation of mitochondrial function, inhibition of α-synuclein fibril formation, and regulation of cell signal transduction pathways such as Nrf2/ARE and NF-κB. The major challenges include large-scale production, long-term safety assessment, regulatory challenges, and site-specific delivery. Future research is moving toward the convergence of gene therapy, nanomedicine, and precision targeting to develop disease-modifying therapy. This approach aims not only to control symptoms but also to potentially control neurodegeneration in PD.
Predicting the hydrolytic degradation of semi‑crystalline biodegradable polymers remains challenging due to hydrolysis kinetics, transport of degradation products, and structural dimensions. Here, a coupled computational-experimental framework is developed, calibrated, and assessed using accelerated in‑vitro degradation experiments to quantitatively describe the spatio‑temporal evolution of number‑average molecular weight (Mn) and crystallinity (Xc) in full‑scale poly(L‑lactic acid) (PLLA) structures. A Multiphysics degradation model accounting for hydrolytic chain scission, diffusion of acidic by‑products, and morphology‑dependent transport is employed and assessed against time‑resolved experimental data. Under accelerated boundary conditions (BC‑1), both thin (0.8 mm) and thick (1.6 mm) stents exhibit nearly identical degradation kinetics, with comparable Mn decay rates and degradation half‑life of approximately 24-25 days, indicating similar degradation behavior in this regime despite thickness‑dependent autocatalytic effects in thicker geometries. In contrast, simulations under quasi‑physiological conditions (BC‑2) predict a non‑classical thickness effect, whereby the thicker stent reaches the degradation half‑life approximately 30%-40% earlier than the thinner counterpart (144 days versus 220 days). Spatio‑temporal analyses reveal a bulk‑erosion‑dominated degradation mechanism with localized surface‑to‑core gradients, governed by diffusion limitations and accumulation of acidic degradation products that enhance autocatalytic hydrolysis in larger volumes. The model shows strong agreement with experimental Mn (R2 ≈ 0.92-0.97), deviations in late‑stage Xc reflect competition between degradation and crystallization, with degradation dominating, and mass‑loss and fragmentation not captured in the current formulation. Overall, this work provides quantitative insight into thickness‑ and environment‑dependent degradation behavior of semi‑crystalline polymers and establishes a predictive materials‑level framework for assessing long‑term degradation and lifetime of biodegradable polymeric systems.
pH-responsive hydrogels have attracted considerable attention for biomedical applications because of their ability to undergo controlled swelling under varying environmental conditions. However, accurately predicting swelling behavior remains challenging due to the complex nonlinear interactions between pH and swelling kinetics. In this study, sodium alginate/triethylene glycol/acrylic acid (STA) biodegradable hydrogels were investigated, and an optimized machine learning framework was developed to predict their swelling behavior under different pH conditions. Experimental swelling data collected over 10-360 min at pH 4, 6, 7.4, 8, and 10 were modeled using an optimized Gradient Boosting regression algorithm with engineered physicochemical features and randomized hyperparameter optimization under 10-fold cross-validation. The optimized model achieved excellent predictive performance with a coefficient of determination (R2) of 0.9617, a root mean square error (RMSE) of 202.22, and a mean absolute error (MAE) of 116.36, demonstrating strong agreement between experimental and predicted swelling values. Feature importance and SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analyses identified nonlinear time-dependent descriptors and pH-time interaction features as the dominant factors governing swelling prediction, improving model interpretability. The proposed framework provides an accurate, interpretable, and computationally efficient tool for hydrogel swelling prediction, supporting the rational design and optimization of pH-responsive biomaterials.
Diabetic wounds are a class of chronic non-healing wounds driven by multiple interacting factors. Conventional therapies remain limited in their ability to actively modulate the wound microenvironment and promote coordinated tissue regeneration. In this context, naturally derived biomaterials with combined biological activity and material functionality have attracted increasing attention. Among them, snail mucus has emerged as a promising source of inspiration because of its multicomponent composition and potential roles in hydration, adhesion, barrier protection, antimicrobial activity, immune regulation, and tissue repair. This review summarizes recent advances in snail mucus and snail mucus-inspired materials for diabetic wound repair, with emphasis on the pathological basis of impaired diabetic wound healing, the biological functions and biomaterial potential of key components, and the engineering strategies derived from these components. We further discuss how snail mucus-derived materials can be reconstructed through hydration and wet-interface control, bioactive component immobilization and presentation, protein-polymer assembly, and spatial or nanoscale integration to regulate material properties and therapeutic functions. Although these materials have shown promising effects in inflammation modulation, antibacterial protection, angiogenesis, re-epithelialization, and tissue reconstruction, current evidence remains largely limited to preclinical studies. Challenges related to raw-material standardization, component definition, biosafety evaluation, and translational validation remain to be addressed. Overall, snail mucus represents not only a natural source of bioactive components for biomaterial construction but also a biomimetic design prototype for developing functional materials for chronic diabetic wound repair.
Bone defects resulting from trauma, malignant tumors, or infections are common clinical conditions. Current clinical treatments for bone defects, however, are associated with secondary injury, poor morphological matching, and immune rejection, falling short of clinical needs. Multifunctional bioscaffolds with osteogenic induction capability have emerged as a highly promising therapeutic strategy. In this study, 3D printing technology was utilized to fabricate scaffolds integrating ROS scavenging and osteogenic differentiation dual functions, and their physicochemical properties and biocompatibility were systematically investigated. Polycaprolactone (PCL) and strontium-magnesium-doped calcium silicate (SMCS) were selected to prepare PCL/SMCS scaffolds with varying SMCS ratios. SMCS incorporation effectively enhanced scaffold hydrophilicity and accelerated degradation. Cell culture experiments confirmed good biocompatibility of the PCL/SMCS scaffolds. Subsequently, cerium-doped SMCS bioceramics were prepared via a post-impregnation process. Notably, the PCL/0.1M Ce-SMCS scaffold exhibited optimal compressive performance, achieving a strength of 22.78 MPa-a 26.42% increase over the PCL/4SMCS scaffold. Compared with PCL/4SMCS, Ce doping promoted cell proliferation and adhesion, conferred ROS scavenging ability, and in vitro osteogenic assays indicated that low-content Ce-SMCS enhanced osteogenic differentiation.
Gene therapy has emerged as one of the most promising approaches in both medical and biotechnological fields due to its capacity to modify, optimize, and regulate target DNA sequences. Recent advancements integrating gene therapy with nanotechnology, particularly through nano-carrier systems, have enabled precise delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids with controlled release at specific pathological sites [1]. Initially focused on monogenic disorders, gene therapy applications have now expanded to a broad spectrum of inherited and acquired diseases [2]. Protein-based nanocarriers have attracted considerable attention as next-generation non-viral vectors due to their intrinsic biocompatibility, biodegradability, and structural versatility [3]. Their ability to encapsulate nucleic acids, support controlled release, and enable targeted delivery makes them attractive candidates for cancer gene therapy. These unique characteristics position protein-based nanocarriers as a cell-friendly and effective strategy for improving the safety and efficiency of gene delivery systems [4]. Consequently, they represent a promising strategy for improving the safety and efficacy of cancer gene therapy. The development of safe, efficient, and biocompatible vectors remains a critical determinant of therapeutic success. Recombinant peptides, despite their therapeutic potential, face challenges such as high toxicity, instability, poor bioavailability, and costly production, which gene therapy strategies aim to overcome [5]. Techniques including gene knockdown, mutation correction, and gene insertion are central to modern gene therapy approaches. This article reviews the recent progress and challenges associated with nano-based non-viral vectors designed for targeted delivery of DNA into cancerous cells.
Skin wound treatment and rehabilitation affect individuals and world health economically and socially. The negative impacts of infections, protracted recovery, and treatment costs cause this socio-economic burden. Herein, we have developed novel hydrogels from chitosan, gelatin, and PVA, crosslinked with TEOS and incorporated with PVP-coated ZnO (PVP@ZnO). These formulations were characterized to determine their structural behavior, porous morphology, thermal stability, and wettability using FTIR, SEM, TGA, and water contact system. The analyses, including swelling in different media, biodegradation, water retention, and gel fraction, were conducted to assess their physicochemical and pH-responsive behaviors. The antibacterial and antioxidant activities were also evaluated to determine their antimicrobial potential, and it was found that CGPZnO1% exhibited maximum antimicrobial activity with exceptional hemocompatibility. The results confirmed that an increased quantity of PVP@ZnO led to improved cellular characteristics and accelerated wound healing. Hence, all these results revealed that the bioactive hydrogel formulation is pH-responsive and can be a promising dressing material for wound healing.
Various ocular illnesses, such as glaucoma, dry eye syndrome, and conjunctivitis, etc. necessitate repeated administration of drug. Therefore, the use of eye drops is preferred due to ease of application and patient compliance. But drug ocular bioavailability from traditional eye drops is low (1%), mainly due to factors such as fast tear turnover, less absorption, brief resident duration in the cul-de-sac and impermeability of the medications to the epithelial membrane of cornea. These issues may be addressed by using in situ gel-forming solutions, which are administered into the eye as drops and undergo a sol-gel transition in the cul-de-sac. The goal of this review is to provide an overview of high-quality research findings involving gellan gum (GG) as a polymeric ingredient in the development of new in situ gel drug delivery systems for ophthalmic applications. Here, the use of gellan gum is reported in its natural form, as well as in chemically modified derivatives or when physically blended with natural or synthetic materials. Beginning with a thorough review of current research works, the major attributes of the GG in ocular drug delivery have been highlighted. Numerous disciplines have extended their research into ophthalmic drug delivery utilizing gellan gum as in situ gels. So far, no reports that summarize these advancements are available. This paper intends to fill that gap. In this review, we aim to present research carried out on GG in situ gel for topical drug delivery to the eye for the management of various diseases.
Polyurethane (PU) hydrogels have been conventionally synthesized using the polyaddition of toxic polyisocyanates with polyols in organic solvents or in bulk, then swelling them in water. In this research work, a previously reported fructose-derived polyhydroxyurethane /poly(sodium acrylate) hydrogel synthesized through a catalyst-free non-isocyanate aqueous route was investigated as a smart pH-responsive platform for the delivery of cefadroxil, a broad-spectrum cephalosporin antibiotic. The novelty of this work lies in the first evaluation of the multifunctional application of a biobased PHU hydrogel for controlled antibiotic delivery, extending its previously reported environmental application to the biomedical domain. The hydrogel exhibited pronounced pH-responsive swelling behaviour, reaching 524.5% swelling at pH 7.4 compared to 54.6% at pH 1.2 after 24 h. Cefadroxil encapsulation efficiency was determined to be 63.7%. Drug release was significantly enhanced at pH 7.4 due to increased ionization of carboxylate groups within the hydrogel network, resulting in increased electrostatic repulsion, network expansion, and accelerated diffusion of the drug. Structural characterisation by FTIR, PXRD, SEM, and TGA confirmed successful hydrogel formation and drug incorporation. Cytocompatibility studies using L929 fibroplast cells demonstrated the non-toxic nature of the hydrogel. The controlled drug release behavior of drug loaded hydrogel followed the Fickian mechanism of diffusion (R2 = 0.9909 at pH 7.4) as suggested by the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. These findings underscore the potential of PHU hydrogels as effective, biocompatible materials for controlled, pH-sensitive drug delivery, contributing to safer and more efficient biomedical applications.
Cross-linked polysaccharide-based nanofibers were successfully fabricated as controlled drug delivery systems for 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and caffeine (Caf). Characterization by SEM, FTIR, ^1H NMR, XRD, and elemental analysis confirmed uniform fiber morphology (180-220 nm), efficient drug incorporation, molecular-level drug-polymer interactions, and predominantly amorphous drug dispersion. In vitro release studies demonstrated sustained drug release over 72 h, with Caf showing pH-independent release and 5-FU exhibiting pH-responsive behavior. Kinetic analysis revealed diffusion-controlled Higuchi release under acidic conditions and first-order release under basic conditions (n < 0.5, Korsmeyer-Peppas), with no burst release observed. MTT assay on HepG2 cells indicated enhanced cytotoxicity of 5-FU-loaded nanofibers (CC50 = 7.5 ± 0.2 μM) compared to free 5-FU (CC50 = 14.5 ± 0.4 μM), while blank nanofibers were non-toxic. These results demonstrate that the developed nanofibers are a robust, tunable, and pH-responsive platform for site-specific chemotherapeutic delivery, warranting further in vivo evaluation and mechanistic studies.
Considering that the use of polysaccharides has been addressed in the replacement of tissue regeneration, the present work aimed to develop membranes made of sodium alginate, corn starch, and herbal medicines, with potential application of these biomaterials in tissue regeneration, as wound dressing. Three membranes (A, B and C) were designed and produced by casting technique, additionally, the membranes were cross-linked with calcium chloride (CaCl2) to improve mechanical stability. The membranes characterization was followed by thermal behavior by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The chemical, structural, and morphological characteristics of the membranes were evaluated using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The hydrolytic degradation of the membranes was also evaluated, and the contact angle was analyzed to determine the hydrophobic/hydrophilic character. The cytotoxicity analysis was assessed by the MTS method, and the mechanical analyses also were evaluated. The results indicated similarity among A, B, and C membranes concerning thermal behavior, despite the morphology having shown differences among the formulations. Furthermore, the amorphous character of all membranes was evidenced through XRD analyses, contributing to the hydrophilicity of the membranes, confirmed by contact angle. In mechanical analyses, results consistent with literature can be seen, including an elastic modulus close to the stiffness of human skin. Based on the obtained results, and the non-cytotoxic behavior of membranes A and B, it is concluded that both membranes are promising candidates for application as biomaterials in tissue dressings.
In this study, we have created a 3D environment conducive to A549 cell growth by developing a novel gelatin-polymannose scaffold incorporated with reduced graphene oxide (Gel:OPM:rGO). The Gel:OPM:rGO scaffold was fabricated and characterised by FTIR, XRD and contact angle analysis, which confirmed the successful fabrication of hydrophilic scaffolds. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed a porous nanofibrous architecture with pore sizes ranging from 50 to 150 µm. Compression testing further demonstrated enhanced mechanical stability following rGO incorporation. A549 cells cultured on the Gel:OPM:rGO scaffold exhibited significantly higher proliferation than the Gel:OPM scaffold and were comparable to those observed in Matrigel (p < 0.01, n = 3). Live staining assays confirmed progressive cell migration and high cell viability. Confocal microscopy images further confirmed elevated ROS generation within the 3D scaffold, indicating the establishment of a hypoxia-like tumor microenvironment. Gene expression analysis showed elevated levels of HIF-1α, MMP2, β-catenin, and CDH1 in 3D cultures compared with 2D cultures. These findings were further supported by Western blot analysis, which showed increased expression of HIF-1α, MMP-2, β-catenin, and E-cadherin. Notably, the molecular expression profile of the Gel:OPM:rGO scaffold closely resembled that of Matrigel. Drug response was evaluated using doxorubicin (Dox) as a model anticancer drug. A549 cells cultured in the Gel:OPM:rGO scaffold and Matrigel exhibited higher inhibitory concentration of Dox when compared to the 2D culture. Our results suggest that the Gel:OPM:rGO scaffold is better suited for A549 cell culture and may serve as a preclinical 3D lung cancer model for drug testing.
Manipulating the immune microenvironment is crucial for bone repair, with macrophages serving as key regulators. Their polarization state significantly influences bone healing. In this study, we examined the immunoregulatory effects of Puerarin, particularly its ability to modulate macrophage activity. Our findings reveal that Puerarin promotes macrophage polarization toward the M2 (anti-inflammatory, pro-healing) phenotype, while suppressing the M1 (pro-inflammatory) phenotype. This shift enhanced the osteogenic differentiation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) in vitro. To harness these effects, we incorporated Puerarin into β-tricalcium phosphate/collagen type I (β-TCP/Col I) scaffolds, creating a sustained-release system. In a rat cranial defect model, Puerarin-loaded scaffolds fostered a pro-healing immune microenvironment and accelerated endogenous osteogenesis at the defect site. In conclusion, Puerarin-loaded scaffolds show significant potential for bone tissue engineering due to their combined osteoinductive and immunomodulatory properties. This herbal-based approach offers promising prospects for developing safer, more effective strategies for bone repair.
This study aimed to develop and optimize an in situ forming alginate dialdehyde (ADA)-gelatin hydrogel for sustained topical delivery of silver sulfadiazine (SSD) and to evaluate its burn wound healing efficacy in a preclinical rat model. ADA was synthesized and combined with gelatin to form a Schiff-base-cross linked network, enabling rapid gel formation upon mixing in a borax containing medium. A 32 factorial design was used to study the effects of ADA (X1) and gelatin (X2) concentrations on viscosity, gelation time, and SSD release at 10 h, and to identify an optimized formulation using desirability-based optimization. The optimized SSD-loaded hydrogel showed rapid gelation (∼90 s), near neutral pH (∼7.2), and high SSD assay (≈99% of theoretical loading), with shear thinning behavior suitable for topical application. SEM indicated a porous microstructure, and physico-mechanical testing supported appropriate gel strength and moisture management characteristics. In vitro release demonstrated sustained SSD delivery over 10 h, consistent with diffusion/relaxation controlled kinetics. In vivo, the SSD loaded hydrogel achieved ∼99% wound closure by day 14, outperforming the hydrogel base (∼93%) and a marketed SSD cream (∼84%). Overall, the ADA-gelatin in situ hydrogel provided rapid wound conformability, sustained SSD release, and improved burn healing, supporting its potential as an advanced topical therapy for burn wound management.
Irregular insulin secretion ultimately results in high blood glucose levels, leading to diabetes. Several oral hypoglycemic drugs and insulins have been discovered to control hyperglycemic conditions, which have a major risk factor for hypoglycemia. To overcome this problem, glucose-responsive polymeric vesicles (GRVs) have recently been developed, which have shown tremendous potential for minimizing blood glucose levels with a low risk of hypoglycemia. This article highlights the ideal characteristics of polymers, the mechanism of synthesis of GRVs, drug release mechanisms from GRVs, including blood glucose regulation, and the stability of insulin in GRVs during storage and in vivo application in diabetes and cancer. All data were obtained from the PubMed, Google Scholar, ResearchGate, and Google Patents databases.
In this study, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was introduced into the traditional gelatin (Gel)/sodium alginate (SA) system, and PVA/Gel/SA hydrogels (PGS) were prepared by freeze-thaw cycling and Cu2+ crosslinking. After screening, proper PVA/Gel ratios were found to significantly improve mechanical strength and flexibility, with all formulations showing high water content and swelling ratios. Among them, PGS4 (5% Gel, 3% PVA, 2% SA) and PGS6 (5% Gel, 7% PVA, 2% SA) showed optimal mechanical performance (321.65 and 428.80 kPa) and proper swelling behavior (swelling ratios of 13.80 and 12.65 at 24 h). After loading the extract of Gardeniae Fructus Preparatus (JZZ), the water content of JZZ-PGS4 and JZZ-PGS6 decreased slightly, while swelling behavior was basically unchanged. JZZ-PGS4 had favorable stability (37.21% degradation at 14 days), high encapsulation efficiency (82.73%) and effective drug release behavior. Both JZZ-PGS4 and JZZ-PGS6 exhibited strong antioxidant activity. PGS4 and PGS6 showed moderate antibacterial activity and good cytocompatibility, which were enhanced by JZZ extract. In conclusion, JZZ-PGS4, possessing balanced comprehensive properties, could serve as a drug-loaded hydrogel platform based on the PVA/Gel/SA system for chronic diabetic wounds.
An effective stent for ureteral obstruction requires controlled swelling behaviour, sustained drug delivery, inhibition of bacterial adhesion, and performance characteristics that conventional stents frequently fail to attain. Two bi-layer bioresorbable stents (Carr/Alg and Ch/PVA) were developed using carrageenan (Carr) and chitosan (Ch) as the inner layer for drug diffusion and integrated with alginate (Alg) and PVA as the outer layer that provides controlled degradation and structural stabilization. Drugs, including aspirin (Asp) and dexamethasone (Dex), were incorporated facilitating drug delivery. Swelling analysis and degradation study of the stent in artificial urine over 18 days indicated the carrageenan/alginate (Carr/Alg) stent showed high fluid retention of 715.8%, compared to the chitosan/PVA (Ch/PVA) stent with 238.8% maintaining stable shape without excessive swelling. The cumulative drug release for Carr/Alg stent had the highest initial burst of 25% over 48 h, whereas Ch/PVA showed 23%, consistent with non-Fickian model. Surface morphology was analysed, confirming bi-layered structure and porous networks for structural stability. Bacterial adhesion was assessed using gram-negative Escherichia coli, demonstrating anti-adhesion behaviour, while bulging analysis demonstrated dimensional stability, indicating suitability under dynamic urinary tract conditions.
In the field of diabetic ulcer treatment, plant-derived pure small molecular compounds loaded in hydrogels have shown significant potential value and importance. However, existing literature on hydrogel dressings for the treatment of diabetic ulcers, although achieving certain therapeutic effects, primarily presents results related to anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, without explaining the underlying immune pathway mechanisms for achieving such effects. Therefore, this paper first briefly introduces the current status of diabetic ulcers and the relevant classical immune pathway mechanisms involved in their pathological processes. Subsequently, it discusses the advantages and limitations of hydrogels and plant-derived pure small molecular compounds in regulating cells and tissues. Finally, it focuses on the latest research progress in using the combination of hydrogels and plant-derived pure small molecular compounds to intervene in immune processes for the treatment of diabetic ulcers. This approach leverages the advantages of the combined use of hydrogels and plant-derived small molecules, such as providing a favorable environment for tissue recovery and enabling more sustained and effective targeting of relevant immune pathways. Ultimately, this work aims to provide new insights and perspectives for the subsequent development of advanced hydrogels loaded with natural small molecular compounds for diabetic wound healing.
Lung cancer continues to be a primary cause of cancer-related death globally, attributed to late-stage detection and the inadequate sensitivity of traditional diagnostic methods. Recent advances in nanotechnology have markedly enhanced early detection, tumour imaging, and localisation using specialised nanocarriers with improved physicochemical properties. This review discusses the role of nanocarriers, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, metallic nanoparticles, quantum dots, and lipid-based nanostructures, which possess distinctive physicochemical properties that enhance target selectivity and signal intensity. These nanoplatforms can be modified with tumor-specific ligands, antibodies, or peptides to facilitate the molecular detection of lung cancer biomarkers, including EGFR, KRAS, and PD-L1. Furthermore, combinations of nanocarrier-based imaging systems with imaging modalities such as MRI, CT, PET, and fluorescence imaging provide non-invasive and real-time tumour visualisation. The review also highlights the promising potential of theranostic nanocarriers that combine diagnostic and therapeutic functions to support personalised lung cancer management. Despite considerable preclinical achievements, the transition to clinical application faces obstacles related to biocompatibility, large-scale production, and regulatory approval. Ongoing multidisciplinary research is crucial to enhance these nanocarrier-based diagnostics and theranostic systems for the early and precise detection of lung cancer, hence increasing patient prognosis and survival rates.
