Veterinary medicine serves as an important translational bridge between preclinical studies and human medicine, offering a valuable model for investigating naturally occurring diseases and generating data unattainable from purely experimental animal models. This is particularly relevant for evaluating novel cancer treatment approaches. Electrochemotherapy (ECT) and gene electrotransfer represent 2 such approaches in both human and veterinary clinical oncology. Current evidence indicates that ECT achieves excellent local ablative control of treated tumors; however, its principal limitation is that ECT does not reliably control untreated or metastatic disease. One strategy to overcome this limitation is combining ECT with the systemic immunomodulatory action of IL-12 gene electrotransfer as both modalities rely on the same platform technology, electroporation. In veterinary medicine, this combined approach has been successfully applied across various tumor types in dogs, demonstrating excellent local antitumor control alongside indications of systemic effects. These have been clinically associated with prolonged survival, regression of distant untreated tumors and lymph node metastases, and reduced invasive tumor growth. Immunological studies are also consistent with systemic immune activation, with flow cytometry analysis of peripheral blood demonstrating transient increases in circulating CD8+ cells following each therapeutic session. Further studies are needed to find the suitable biomarkers for selecting the appropriate patients for the selected treatments.
Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have revolutionized human oncology and are emerging as a promising strategy in veterinary cancer care. These agents unleash antitumor immunity by targeting inhibitory pathways that suppress T-cell function, enabling durable responses in select patients. In dogs, the immune checkpoint programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) axis is a primary focus due to conserved structural and functional homology with the PD-1 axis in humans, documented PD-1/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) signaling in the canine tumor microenvironment, and its role in reversing tumor-induced immune exhaustion. Several caninized anti-PD-1 and anti-PD-L1 antibodies have demonstrated favorable safety profiles and notable antitumor activity in spontaneously occurring canine cancers, particularly melanoma and mast cell tumors. Gilvetmab, currently the only veterinary ICI available commercially, has conditional licensure in the United States for these indications. This caninized anti-PD-1 monoclonal antibody has demonstrated target engagement, acceptable tolerability, and clinical efficacy in a subset of treated dogs. Although reported adverse events are generally manageable, further work is needed to better characterize immune-mediated toxicities. Furthermore, response patterns may differ from those of cytotoxic therapies, including potential pseudoprogression, necessitating careful selection of response assessment methods. Key challenges remain in optimizing patient selection, refining biomarker development, establishing effective combination strategies, and defining the efficacy of immune checkpoint blockade across diverse tumor histologic subtypes (histotypes). Continued study of gilvetmab and related agents should advance the clinical application of immunotherapy in veterinary oncology and inform the next generation of comparative cancer care.
Electrochemotherapy (ECT) is a well-established local cancer treatment that combines the administration of chemotherapeutic drugs with the application of short electric pulses to enhance intracellular drug uptake. Over the past 3 decades, ECT has become an accepted therapeutic modality in both human and veterinary oncology for the treatment of a wide range of superficial and deep-seated tumors. Although favorable response rates have been reported across many tumor types, treatment outcomes remain variable among patients and neoplasms. Currently, patient selection is based primarily on clinical and pathological factors, while validated predictive biomarkers are lacking. This review summarizes the evidence regarding factors influencing ECT response in veterinary oncology, including tumor histotype, size, local invasiveness, clinical stage, previous treatments, immunohistochemical and molecular markers, and tumor blood perfusion. Available data indicate that smaller tumors, lower disease burden, and earlier intervention are associated with improved outcomes, whereas recurrent and advanced-stage tumors show reduced responsiveness. Future research integrating molecular profiling, immune characterization, functional imaging, and liquid biopsy approaches may facilitate the development of predictive biomarkers and support a more personalized application of ECT in veterinary cancer patients.
Objective:The objective of this study was to determine which format pet owners prefer for oncology discharge instructions. A secondary objective was to determine how pet owners access electronic information. Methods:In this experimental survey-based study, 114 owners of pets receiving chemotherapy between August 2024 and March 2025 at the Animal Medical Center in New York City read fictionalized oncology discharge instructions with the same content in 2 different formats: text and graphic design. Participants were asked to indicate their document preferences based on the US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality Patient Education Materials Assessment Tool. Results:Of the 82 responses received, 78 were analyzed. Fifty-eight percent of pet owners preferred graphic design discharge instructions, 23% selected both versions, and 19% selected text. Ninety-six percent used their smartphone to complete the survey. Pet owners' demographic distribution mirrored other studies of American pet owners, except for education level. Conclusions:When creating pet owner education documents, consideration must be given to readability, sentence structure, typography, and layout and content. Because pet owners used their smartphones to access information, consideration should be given to formatting online education materials for smartphone compatibility. Clinical Relevance:Information gained from this study can be used to create pet owner education materials that increase understanding and also meet the pet owner's formatting preferences. The results of this study can be generalized to other pet owners in the US, given the similarity of this study's pet owners to published data, with the exception of a higher education level.
Objective:To test the hypothesis that, when used with doxycycline, moxidectin, and prednisone, 2-dose melarsomine would be as safe and effective as 3-dose melarsomine. Methods:A randomized clinical trial was conducted from April 2024 to December 2025, comparing compressed 2-dose and 3-dose melarsomine protocols. Dogs with Class 1 or 2 heartworm disease received sustained-release moxidectin, doxycycline, prednisone, and 2 or 3 injections of melarsomine. Melarsomine was administered on days 14 and 15 (2-dose group) or days 14, 44, and 45 (3-dose group). Dogs were exercise restricted for 4 weeks following melarsomine. Daily clinical observations were made until the last day of exercise restriction. Antigen tests were performed 6 or 9 months after melarsomine. Results:168 dogs completed treatment (2-dose group, n = 85; 3-dose group, 83), and 165 were retested (2-dose group, 85; 3-dose group, 80). There was no significant difference in efficacy between the 2-dose group (95.3%; 95% CI, 88.4% to 98.7%) and the 3-dose group (98.8%; exact 95% CI, 93.2% to 100.0%). The sample size was insufficient for conclusive noninferiority analysis at the predefined noninferiority margin of 4%. Survival was 100%. Complications were rare, with 7 dogs requiring thoracic radiographs with or without additional treatment, but none requiring intensive management. Incidence of post-melarsomine cough, increased respiratory effort, and weakness was not significantly different between groups. Conclusions:A compressed 2-dose melarsomine protocol, with doxycycline, moxidectin, and prednisone, was safe and effective. Clinical Relevance:Compared with 3-dose protocols, the 2-dose melarsomine protocol reduces the cost, resources, and time required to treat heartworm disease.
Objective:With shortages persisting, it is important to develop an evidence-based strategy for recruiting rural veterinarians. The purpose of this multi-institutional study was to determine predictors for entry into rural practice that may be utilized in admissions decisions. Methods:The sample consisted of 6,431 graduates of 33 accredited American and Caribbean veterinary schools that utilize the Veterinary Medical College Application Service and AVMA Graduating Senior Survey. First destination outcomes, including place of first employment, of 2019 to 2023 graduates were examined. Logistic regression was conducted to identify variables that can predict a graduate's choice of employment in rural food animal versus other employment settings. Results:Results indicated that a graduate's community of origin, selected community (location of first job after graduation), and both veterinary and nonveterinary experiences with food animals have the strongest relationships with choice of employment setting (location and type). Conclusions:Community of origin and experiences with food animals are statistically significant indicators of likelihood to enter rural practice upon graduation. Clinical Relevance:These findings can be used to influence recruitment strategies and admissions practices by colleges of veterinary medicine to shape the demographics of veterinary classes and the potential practice locations and types of veterinary graduates.
Objective:The purpose of this study was to describe adverse clinical and radiographic musculoskeletal findings in dogs treated with bedinvetmab (Librela). Methods:Musculoskeletal adverse events in dogs treated with bedinvetmab were obtained from the Zoetis Global Pharmacovigilance database. Case inclusion criteria were adverse event reports that contained a minimum amount of medical information to allow for interpretation of the case along with radiographs or radiology reports. Following initial review, cases were assigned to one of the following categories: (a) insufficient information; (b) consistent with normal progression of osteoarthritis; (c) consistent with other specific orthopedic disease; or (d) atypical findings. Category (d) cases went through a second review, in which they were assigned to descriptive categories based on radiographic changes. Results:During the study period (November 2020 through December 2025), 319 cases were considered as potential cases of adverse musculoskeletal events. Review of these cases found 186 that had atypical radiographic findings. Abnormal periarticular bone remodeling was the most common change noted, but other significant changes were found. Most commonly, the elbow or tarsus joint was involved. Changes occurred unilaterally or bilaterally and could be progressive and affect different joints in the same dog. Concurrent administration of NSAIDs was reported in 118 dogs (63%), and off-label use of bedinvetmab was reported in 46 dogs (25%). Conclusions:This study describes the clinical and radiographic features seen following bedinvetmab treatment. Clinical Relevance:Dogs can exhibit unique clinical and radiographic features when treated with bedinvetmab that can differentiate them from other musculoskeletal conditions.
Objective:Describe the epidemiologic landscape of rabies and rabies testing in the US during 2024. Methods:Animal rabies testing results from approximately 130 public health, agriculture, and academic laboratories are collected by the US National Rabies Surveillance System (NRSS) each month. Data reported in 2024 were analyzed to examine temporal and geographic trends in animal rabies cases by rabies virus variant (RVV). Results:In 2024, 3,834 cases of animal rabies were reported to the NRSS (4.2% of 90,343 samples submitted), representing a 2.0% increase from 2023. Of positive samples, 331 (8.6%) were domestic animals, and 3,503 (91.4%) were wildlife. The most commonly found rabid domestic animal was cats (243 positive [1.3% positivity]), and the most commonly found wildlife were bats (1,376 positive [5.7% positivity]) followed by raccoons (1,080 [10.1% positivity]). Two nonenzootic RVVs gained entry into the US in 2024. Four people died from rabies, including 2 who experienced bat exposures that were left untreated and 1 person whose case involved international travel. Conclusions:The expansion of the historical range of enzootic RVVs can lead to substantial public health and animal health burden. Domestically acquired human rabies cases in 2024 underscore the need for continual public education on the risks of rabies exposures to ensure timely and effective administration of postexposure prophylaxis. The internationally acquired human rabies case demonstrates that the US remains vulnerable to human and animal rabies importations. Clinical Relevance:The NRSS plays a crucial role in protecting public and animal health by monitoring rabies trends in the US.
Objective:To establish a hospital proportional morbidity rate (HPMR) for urethral obstructions (UOs) in domestic ferrets; describe clinical presentation, interventions, and outcomes; and report associations with UO etiologies and survival. Methods:In this retrospective, descriptive, epidemiological study, electronic medical records were evaluated from ferrets presenting to 3 academic institutions in the US between 2013 and 2023. Descriptive and bivariate statistical analyses were performed. Parametric and nonparametric results are reported as mean ± SD or median (IQR). Results:A total of 3,242 records were reviewed. The HPMR was 2.09% (68 of 3,242). Urethral obstruction etiologies included urolithiasis (57.4% [39 of 68]), adrenal disease-associated prostatic disease (19.12% [13 of 68]), and undiagnosed etiology (23.53% [16 of 68]). Twenty-seven of 66 ferrets (40.91%) were euthanized on presentation. Of the remaining ferrets, 92.31% (36 of 39) survived to discharge. Average hospitalization time was 2.82 ± 2.21 days. Complications occurred in 23.08% (9 of 39) of ferrets, and recurrence rate after discharge was 31.6% (6 of 19) with a median of 19 days (IQR, 1 to 1,164 days). Ferrets with urolithiasis were significantly younger (median, 2 years old) and had significantly higher blood glucose (median, 127 mg/dL) compared to ferrets with adrenal disease-associated prostatic disease (median age, 5 years old; median blood glucose, 91 mg/dL). Ferrets that survived to discharge had significantly higher body temperature on admission (median, 37.4 °C [99.4 °F]) compared to ferrets that were euthanized (median, 36.7 °C [98 °F]). Conclusions:Ferrets with UO had an HPMR, hospitalization times, and survival and recurrence rates that were similar to those of cats. Clinical Relevance:These findings provide objective prognostic data to better inform treatment recommendations and client decision-making.
Objective:To investigate changes in characteristics of dogs diagnosed with canine parvovirus (CPV) disease presenting to a national network of primary care veterinary hospitals. Methods:Records were searched from January 1, 2010, through June 30, 2023. Data were collected on signalment, clinical signs, laboratory results, and mortality for CPV-affected dogs. Variables were assessed via stepwise logistic regression models for association with mortality. Results:Across > 1,000 hospitals, CPV was diagnosed in 78,977 dogs, declining from 45.2 cases per 10,000 dogs per year in 2010 to 6.5 cases per 10,000 dogs per year in 2022. Diagnoses were greatest in April to June, while 46.3% of cases were aged between 8 and 16 weeks. From 2010 to 2022, median age at diagnosis declined from 17 to 14 weeks. The most commonly affected breeds were pit bull-type dog, Chihuahua, Labrador Retriever, German Shepherd Dog, and mixed breed (combined, 54.3% of the study population). Of 37,707 patients with 14-day survival information, 43.6% died or were euthanized. Being neutered or spayed (OR, 0.04; 95% CI, 0.02 to 0.08), having increased body weight, or having multiple intestinal parasites significantly reduced odds of mortality. Variables significantly associated with increased odds of mortality were hypoproteinemia (OR, 4.44; 95% CI, 2.01 to 9.81), underweight (OR, 2.99; 95% CI, 1.40 to -6.36), lymphopenia, leukopenia, and increased ALT. Conclusions:The number of CPV cases and mortality declined over the study period. However, CPV infections still occur in thousands of dogs annually, and risks of mortality persist. Clinical Relevance:Dogs remain at risk of fatal CPV infection. Identification of mortality-associated factors may allow more targeted interventions and improve prognostic capabilities.
Objective:To assess the safety, efficacy, and repeatability of a novel technique, mentolabial blood collection, in rats (Rattus norvegicus), Chinese hamsters (Cricetulus griseus), and long-tailed chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera) and to characterize the associated anatomy through dissection and histopathology. Methods:A prospective study was conducted in rats (n = 10), Chinese hamsters (10), and long-tailed chinchillas (12) from February 2026 to March 2026 to evaluate mentolabial blood collection. Animals were chemically restrained, and a needle was inserted through the skin below the inferior labium, targeting the gingival vein. Success was defined as a blood sample of ≥ 0.1 mL. A subset of Chinese hamsters (n = 6) underwent serial venipuncture, and hematology values were compared at days 0, 7, and 14. An additional 2 rats, 2 Chinese hamsters, and 1 long-tailed chinchilla were included for anatomical characterization. Results:The success rate of the mentolabial approach was 100% (10 of 10) in rats and Chinese hamsters and 75% (9 of 12) in long-tailed chinchillas. No animals experienced clinical complications, and histopathology in rats and Chinese hamsters did not reveal adverse effects. In Chinese hamsters, hematologic parameters remained within reference range with no significant differences over time. Conclusions:Mentolabial blood collection is safe in sedated or anesthetized rats, Chinese hamsters, and long-tailed chinchillas and is highly effective in rats and Chinese hamsters, yielding clinically relevant blood volumes with precise control and minimal risks. Clinical Relevance:The mentolabial approach may facilitate more routine bloodwork analysis in rodents by veterinarians and, in research settings, may improve animal welfare and contribute to refinement and reduction.
Carbapenem-resistant Enterobacterales (CRE) are an emerging, multidrug-resistant threat to human and animal health. Emergence is driven by antimicrobial use and multidirectional transmission pathways between humans, animals, and the environment. Carbapenems are essential drugs for treatment of multidrug-resistant infections in humans and, although not approved for veterinary use, are infrequently prescribed in dogs and cats in an extralabel manner. In the US, CRE detections in companion animals have recently increased. While prevalence of CRE in US companion animals is estimated to be low, outbreaks in veterinary hospitals demonstrate that CRE can be transmitted within animal healthcare settings, persist in the environment, and cause operational disruption. Exchange of CRE between companion animals and people has been documented. There are several important knowledge gaps about CRE in companion animals, including (1) uncertainties in true prevalence due to infrequent testing and underreporting; (2) lack of understanding of carbapenem resistance mechanisms because of inconsistent access to testing; (3) limited data on colonization dynamics; and (4) lack of information characterizing risk factors for acquisition. A coordinated One Health approach for surveillance and preparedness is essential to identify, prevent, and contain CRE. Here we provide veterinary professionals with a comprehensive, practical overview of CRE epidemiology, mechanisms of resistance, diagnostic considerations, therapeutic limitations, and infection prevention and control (IPC) practices. The companion Currents in One Health article by Frey et al, AJVR, forthcoming 2026, reviews the current understanding of carbapenemase-producing CRE in companion animals; identifies gaps in epidemiology, diagnostics, and infection control; and outlines priorities for future research.
Owner noncompliance, not preventive failure, drives most canine Dirofilaria immitis infections in established patients. Only 24.4% of dogs under care achieve full-year purchase compliance with monthly macrocyclic lactones. Informal data suggest far more practices send annual testing reminders than monthly dosing reminders. The primary goal is continuous chemical protection, not annual detection of prior failures. This viewpoint argues for tracking adherence rates, routine adherence counseling, and prospective evaluation of adherence-first protocols in standard prescription-renewal settings.
Our pets share our living conditions. Many transformations have occurred over the past few decades, including lifestyle shifts and increased exposure to chemicals, pollution, and climate change. Our pets have left a rural environment to join our urban lifestyle, with a loss of plant and microbial diversity; increased exposure to pollution from car traffic, plastics, and chemicals; and more time spent indoors. Concurrently, they have experienced, with us, the effects of climate-related events, including extreme heat, humidity, wind, and exposure to dust from fires. Higher carbon dioxide levels have intensified pollen production and allergenicity, while pollution and chemicals damage epithelia, increasing their permeability. Pollen seasons are longer and more intense. These changes contribute to the rising incidence of allergic diseases and their increased severity. These factors affect the immune system, epithelial barriers, and microbiome, collectively leading to dysbiosis, increased allergen penetration, inflammation, and a higher risk of allergic sensitization. Our pets have mirrored the rise in certain conditions, such as allergic diseases, as seen in people. Atopic dermatitis has been linked to epithelial damage and gut dysbiosis in both dogs and people. This Currents in One Health article aims to present the current state of knowledge on our changing environmental conditions and their impact on our pets, with a focus on skin diseases. The purpose is to increase our awareness of the fact that animal, human, and environmental health are connected and changes in our environmental conditions are driving the rise of inflammatory skin diseases in pets and people.
Objective:To report the prevalence of bacterial isolates and associated antimicrobial susceptibility from samples obtained from clinically diseased pet guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus). Methods:A retrospective, observational, quantitative study was performed to identify bacterial isolates of pet guinea pigs and antibiotic susceptibility. Medical records were reviewed for guinea pigs evaluated at a university teaching hospital between 2004 and 2023, from which aerobic or anaerobic bacterial cultures were obtained. Results:A total of 112 bacterial isolates were cultured from 63 guinea pigs. The most cultured sites included abscesses and the urinary tract. The 3 most prevalent bacterial genera isolated were Streptococcus (21 of 112 [19%]), Corynebacterium (19 of 112 [17%]), and Prevotella (11 of 112 [11%]). The most isolated species was Corynebacterium renale (12 of 112 [11%]). Corynebacterium spp accounted for 53% (10 of 19) of all urinary tract isolates. Susceptibility of Corynebacterium spp towards commonly used oral antibiotics was 94% for doxycycline, 82% for azithromycin, 71% for enrofloxacin, and 65% for trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMS). Among all urinary tract isolates, only 50% were susceptible to TMS, and 59% were susceptible to enrofloxacin. Among oral antibiotics used in guinea pigs, Streptococcus spp were all susceptible to TMS and azithromycin. Conclusions:The 2 gram-positive bacterial genera Corynebacterium and Streptococcus were the most common isolates in this study, with C renale being the most common species overall and the predominant urinary tract isolate from the guinea pigs in this study. Clinical Relevance:Enrofloxacin and TMS are often prescribed empirically for urinary tract infections in guinea pigs, yet resistance may be high. Therefore, culture and susceptibility testing should be performed whenever feasible.
Objective:To evaluate the diagnostic performance of multiple large language models (LLMs) against expert consensus in determining surgical intervention needs for feline metacarpal and metatarsal fractures. Methods:In this retrospective study (December 2023 to February 2025), 73 clinical cases of feline metacarpal and metatarsal fractures were evaluated. Two board-certified veterinary orthopedic surgeons established a reference standard for surgical versus conservative management. Five LLMs (ChatGPT, version 5.2 [OpenAI Inc]; Gemini, version 3 Pro [Alphabet Inc]; Grok, version 4.1 [SpaceXAI]; Qwen, version 3.5 [Alibaba Cloud]; and Claude Sonnet, version 4.5 [Anthropic PBC]; and Claude Sonnet, version 4.5 [Anthropic PBC]) assessed anonymized case summaries using a standardized zero-shot prompt. Model recommendations were compared with the reference standard to calculate accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and the Cohen κ. Results:The reference standard classified 49 cases (67.1%) as surgical and 24 (32.9%) as conservative. ChatGPT achieved the highest performance (accuracy, 84.9%; sensitivity, 79.6%; specificity, 95.8%; κ = 0.69). Other models showed lower performance; Qwen and Claude Sonnet failed to identify any surgical cases (0% sensitivity). A systematic bias toward conservative management was observed across all models, causing high false-negative rates (undertriage). Conclusions:LLMs demonstrate highly variable diagnostic performance and a systematic risk of undertriage in feline fracture assessment. While top-performing models approach expert-level agreement, others fail in critical clinical scenarios. Clinical Relevance:Independent LLM use for surgical decision-making in feline orthopedics is not recommended due to undertriage risks. These tools require strict clinician oversight for preliminary triage.
