Etorphine is an ultra-potent opioid used to immobilise white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum) in the field, but it can also cause extensive metabolic and cardiorespiratory derangements. To potentially reduce the severity of these derangements, etorphine is combined with synergistic drugs including medetomidine (an alpha-2 adrenoreceptor agonist), midazolam (a benzodiazepine agonist), or azaperone (a butyrophenone drug). The potentiation effects of these synergistic drugs are believed to reduce induction times and excitement, induce muscle relaxation, and improve immobilisation quality and safety. To test the benefits of these synergistic drugs, eight healthy, wild-caught boma-housed white rhinoceros (sub-adult males) were used in a repeated-measures randomised cross-over study. Each rhinoceros was immobilised with four treatments: etorphine only (control), etorphine + azaperone (azaperone), etorphine + medetomidine (medetomidine), and etorphine + midazolam (midazolam). Butorphanol was administered intravenously after 12 min of immobilisation in all treatments. First signs of drug effects, immobilisation induction times, immobilisation quality, tremor scores, rectal temperature, heart and respiratory rates, and peripheral arterial oxygen-haemoglobin saturation, were compared between and within treatments. All four treatments effectively immobilised rhinoceros, however the addition of azaperone, medetomidine and midazolam were associated with significantly shorter induction times compared to the etorphine-only. All treatments initially caused severe muscle tremors, hypopnea, hypoxaemia, and tachycardia (except for medetomidine). The administration of butorphanol partly corrected most of these derangements. Our study shows that the synergistic drugs effectively speed up induction into immobilisation. However, they provide little other physiological or clinical benefit over etorphine-only. Butorphanol remains an important ancillary treatment when administering these drug combinations in rhinoceros.
Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is an economically important global zoonotic disease affecting all mammalian species, caused by Mycobacterium bovis. The diagnostic test prescribed by the South African National Bovine Tuberculosis Control Scheme and required for international trade in live cattle is the intradermal tuberculin test. Theoretical and practical learning of tuberculin skin testing should be done simultaneously during student training. The study aimed to assess the training programme of Veterinary Field Technicians (VFTs) on tuberculin skin testing in cattle and its impact on their performance. Twenty-five VFTs, between the ages of 22 and 61, were enrolled for bovine tuberculosis (bTB) testing refresher training, which covered both theoretical and practical aspects of the tuberculin skin test. Twenty-three VFTs participated in both the pre-training and the post-training written assessment, while two VFTs each missed one of the assessments. The mean (± SD) pre-training score was 39% (±14%), and only 4/23 VFTs (17%) achieved the pass score of 50%. The mean post-training score was 55% (± 15%), and 16 (70%) passed the posttraining test. The mean difference (post-training - pre-training) was 16% (95% CI: 12, 19%; p < 0.001), with a large effect size (Hedges' gav = 1.07; 95% CI: 0.90, 1.25). VFTs in the age group 51-61 years performed poorly in the assessments compared to those aged between 22 and 50 years old. Adjusting for pre-training score, there was an inverse association between age and post-training score (b = -0.46; 95% CI: -0.75, -0.17; p = 0.004). It was concluded from this study that VFTs employed by the State were not allocated sufficient time for theoretical and practical re-training on tuberculin skin testing of cattle in Bushbuckridge local municipality, Mpumalanga province. The refresher training course was a useful intervention to effectively improve the theoretical and practical TB testing skills of VFTs.
Thoroughbred racehorses are at increased risk of injury during race preparations and trials, primarily due to intensive workloads that predispose them to musculoskeletal injuries. Evaluating clinical interventions to improve health and prevent injury is essential for addressing animal welfare concerns. This study investigated the medium-term effects of acupuncture on stride, speed and cardiac autonomic regulation (assessed via heart rate variability [HRV]), in Thoroughbred flat racehorses. This prospective, randomised, parallel-group study included an intervention and a control group. Thirty Thoroughbred racehorses in full training (racing age 3 years; range 3.0-3.9), from a single professional training yard, and at the same stage of their racing careers, were maintained under similar nutritional, training, and environmental conditions. The intervention group received three acupuncture treatments, over a three-week period. HRV and 800-m gallop stride parameters (SP) were measured pre- and post-acupuncture period in both groups. Pre-post changes or delta (Δ) in each indicator were calculated for both groups and compared using non-parametric Mann-Whitney U tests. Treatment was associated with non-significant reductions in parasympathetic HRV indicators namely root mean square of successive differences in beat-to-beat RR-interval (ΔRMSSD: treatment vs control: - 2.19 vs. 1.47 ms), high frequency components (ΔHF: - 37.19 vs. 19.42 ms2), and standard deviation of short-term variability (ΔSD1: - 1.56 vs. 1.04 ms), suggesting lower vagal tone. Maximum stride count (Max SC) increased significantly in the control group (p = 0.004). Overall, the treatment group showed decreased stride count and vagal activity indicating that a short recovery period may be required after acupuncture.
Veterinary physiotherapy is a newly promulgated independent profession in South Africa. Veterinary physiotherapists work under referral or in collaboration with a veterinarian. Veterinarians therefore significantly influence appropriate client referrals. The study examined the relationship dynamics between veterinarians and veterinary physiotherapists in South Africa, with a focus on identifying the barriers and facilitators influencing referral practices by veterinarians. This descriptive cross-sectional study used a sequential exploratory mixed-method approach. Three phases of data collection were completed utilising both semi-structured interviews, phases 1 and 3, and two self-developed descriptive questionnaires administered to both veterinarians and veterinary physiotherapists in phase 2. Interviews transcripts were analysed using an inductive thematic approach to identify common themes. Questionnaire data was analysed using a descriptive statistical analysis and correlation tests to determine the relationship between variables. Statistical significance was calculated and determined using p < 0.05. Sixty-five percent (65%, n = 63) of veterinarians regularly referred patients to veterinary physiotherapy. Significant correlations were found between the type of veterinary practice and the likelihood to refer. Forty-nine percent (49%, n = 29) of veterinary physiotherapists received regular referrals from veterinarians. Regular referrals from veterinarians and a higher veterinary physiotherapy caseload were significantly correlated. The interviews revealed themes around how communication, location, and understanding the physiotherapy profession impacted the veterinarians'likelihood to refer. While there appears to be a positive perception ofthe veterinary physiotherapy profession by veterinarians, there remains potential for growth regarding veterinary referrals to veterinary physiotherapy. This can be supported by better communication between the professions and ongoing education.
BACKGROUND:Sex-sorted semen (SS) offers economic benefits to sheep producers, but lower fertility outcome (FO), defined as probability of pregnancy, pregnancy rate or lambing rate, than that following conventional semen (CS) artificial insemination (AI) may limit its use. OBJECTIVES:To systematically review the literature, and analyse factors associated with FO following AI in sheep using SS vs CS. METHODS:Available literature was searched using the PRISMA guidelines, resulting in 11 studies with 14 experiments that were reviewed. From these, information from 70 study cohorts representing 13 experiments was used to conduct a meta-analysis which confirmed that FOs for SS and CS AI were 37% (95% CI = 31-43%) and 52% (95% CI = 45-59%), respectively (p < 0.01). RESULTS:FO improved over time, with FO following SS and CS AI improving at the same rate over the period investigated (1997- 2022). In a subgroup analysis, five factors were identified that potentially decrease the FO after SS AI disproportionately. These were sperm dose ≤ 4 × 106 spermatozoa, semen preservation (fresh vs frozen-thawed), oestrus synchronisation using an intravaginal sponge (vs a controlled internal drug release device), presence of gonadotropin-releasing hormone in the synchronisation protocol, and absence of biostimulation using a teaser ram. In a random-effects model analysis, an interaction between sperm dose and SS vs CS, and semen preservation were independent predictors of FO after adjusting for the effect of timing of insemination. CONCLUSION:FO following insemination with SS is 15% lower than that of CS, which can be narrowed by increasing the semen dose for SS inseminations and improving the synchronisation of ovulation with the timing of insemination.
Wild rhinoceros populations are threatened by ongoing poaching pressure and habitat loss. Establishing reservoirs of gametes of as many individuals as possible may assist to preserve genetic diversity and could be applied in assisted reproductive techniques in the future. However, for routine implementation of semen collection during any male rhinoceros immobilisation event, current methods and protocols need simplification and improvement. This study aimed to establish field-friendly methods of semen collection in white (Ceratotherium simum; WR) and black rhinoceroses (Diceros bicornis; BR) that can be performed opportunistically given the usual time constraints. Sixty-two game-farmed WR and seven wild BR were immobilised for planned management interventions. Semen collection was performed using electro-stimulation with a battery powered electro-ejaculator and specifically designed rectal probe. Furthermore, in ten WR and two BR, urethral catheterisation was performed with a 10FG nasogastric tube passed retrograde up the urethra as a method of semen collection. Semen-rich fractions were collected from 47/62 WR and 6/7 BR following electro-stimulation. Of these, 10 WR and two BR samples were obtained by urethral catheterisation. The duration of semen collection was 16.4 ± 7.3 (3-30) and 25.8 ± 6.0 (19-33) min requiring 5.2 ± 2.3 and 6.0 ± 0.7 stimulation sets for WR and BR, respectively. Semen volumes, sperm concentrations, motile and viable sperm were 1-64 and 9-18 ml, 68.4 ± 54.2 and 23.7 ± 26.7x106/ml, 51.0 ± 14.2 and 55.0 ± 17.3, and 79.9 ± 15.0 and 88.3 ± 8.4% for WR and BR, respectively. Urethral catheterisation, when implemented, reduced the time required for semen collection. Operator experience influenced sampling efficacy. Equipment and methods described in this study improved semen collection in free-ranging rhinoceroses and can be combined with routine immobilisations, despite time constraints.
Background: Swelling disease is a poorly understood clinical syndrome of South African Angora goats that is characterised by acute-onset diffuse oedema. Adrenocorticotropic hormone-stimulated aldosterone secretion has been proposed as a possible aetiology of swelling disease, but this hypothesis has not been tested. Objectives: To investigate aldosterone secretion in swelling disease by reanalysing data collected during a 2015 clinical investigation of the syndrome in which serum aldosterone and cortisol levels were measured along with standard clinical laboratory variables in affected and unaffected animals. Methods: Goats affected with swelling disease, and unaffected herd-mates, were sampled for measurement of haematology variables, serum protein variables, and serum sodium, aldosterone, and cortisol. Results for affected and unaffected goats were compared using the Mann-Whitney U test, and the association between variables was investigated using Spearman's rank-order correlation analysis. Results: Goats affected with swelling disease had significantly higher white blood cell counts (WBC) and serum aldosterone than unaffected animals, and significantly lower total serum protein (TSP), albumin, globulin, and albumin/globulin ratios. For all animals (n = 60), serum protein variables showed a significant and strong positive correlation with one another, and a negative correlation with serum aldosterone and WBC. Conclusion: Swelling disease of South African Angora goats is characterised by panhypoproteinaemia, a low A/G ratio, leukocytosis, and hyperaldosteronaemia. Causal relationships between variables could not be determined, however, the detection of hyperaldosteronaemia provides novel insight into the possible pathophysiological mechanisms of this syndrome.
The incidence of ulcerative balanoposthitis (UB) in rams contributes to significant economic losses in the national sheep population. Understanding the immune response in the reproductive tract can aid in developing preventive measures. This study aimed to characterise the immunoglobulin profiles and microbial diversity in the reproductive tract of rams affected by UB, providing insight into the immune responses to this disease. Serum and glans tissue samples from healthy and UB-affected rams were analysed using an ELISA approach to quantify IgG, IgA, and IgM levels. The microbial diversity in nasal, penile swabs, and smegma samples was assessed using an ARISA approach. Significant differences (p ≤ 0.001) were observed between the systemic and localised immune responses. UB-affected rams exhibited higher IgG and IgM levels but lower IgA levels in both serum and glans tissue compared to healthy rams. The study confirmed UB-induced shifts in the microbiome, with significant differences in microbial diversity indices in nasal, penile, and smegma samples. Specifically, there were changes in the nasal fungi Shannon (p = 0.047) and Simpson (p = 0.038) indices, the penile Shannon (p = 0.015) and Simpson (p = 0.006) bacterial indices, and the smegma bacterial species number index (p = 0.042). Correlations between microbial populations and immunoglobulin profiles indicated an interactive immune response in different health statuses. This study highlights the need to understand the immune system of the lower reproductive tract and its interaction with commensal organisms to develop therapeutic immunomodulators for preventing UB in sheep.
Venous thrombosis within the internal vertebral venous plexus is a rare occurrence in both human and veterinary medicine. This case report details the evaluation and management of an 18-month-old female spayed Siberian Husky Mix diagnosed with internal vertebral venous plexus thrombosis after presenting with cervical pain and mild tetraparesis. Initial imaging using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed asymmetric enlargement of the right internal vertebral venous plexus without evidence of spinal cord compression. Cerebrospinal fluid analysis was unremarkable. The dog was treated with clopidogrel and analgesics, leading to significant clinical improvement. However, clinical signs recurred after 20 weeks, prompting a repeat MRI that confirmed persistent thrombus. The treatment regimen was reinitiated, resulting in resolution of clinical signs. This case underscores the need for specific guidelines regarding the diagnosis and management of venous thrombosis in veterinary patients, as current literature predominantly references human medicine. The report also highlights the potential role of advanced imaging techniques, such as phase-contrast magnetic resonance angiography (MRA), in diagnosing vascular conditions in veterinary practice.
This study aimed to evaluate the utility of the Sebia Capillarys 2 Flex-Piercing (C2FP) system for the quantification of the major caprine beta chain haemoglobin (Hb) variants, i.e. foetal Hb, neonatal Hb, and adult Hb. Blood samples were collected from six Angora kids at one, 11, and 20 weeks after birth, and analysed using the C2FP instrument and Capillarys Hemoglobin(E) kit. Electropherograms displayed three major peaks which showed consistent changes in relative magnitude as kids aged. At one week old, a peak at position '75 was identified as foetal Hb, while in older animals, peaks at '150 and '170 were identified as neonatal Hb and adult Hb, respectively. In conclusion, this study has confirmed the utility of the Sebia C2FP system for the simple, rapid, and standardised quantification of the major beta chain Hb variants of Angora goats.
Medial patellar luxation (MPL) is a common orthopaedic condition in dogs that often requires surgical intervention. Semi-cylindrical recession trochleoplasty (SCRT) is a promising technique; however, the adjustment increments of commercially available SCRT saw guides are limited. As an alternative, the effectiveness of patient-specific 3D-printed saw guides for SCRT was assessed for three small dogs with MPL. An eight-year-old Chihuahua (6 kg) and a ten-year-old Maltese (5 kg) with MPL Grade 3, as well as a five year-old Cocker Spaniel (10 kg) with MPL Grade 4, were included in this study. Preoperative computed tomography (CT) scans confirmed no angular bone deformities in the three dogs. The animals underwent SCRT using 3D-printed patient-specific saw guides, which allowed for customised adjustments to the trochlear groove depth, overcoming the 1.5 mm increment limitation of commercially available guides. Digital imaging and communications in medicine (DICOM) images from the CT scans were converted into stereolithography (STL) files and Fusion 360 was used to design the saw guides, which were then 3D-printed for use with SCRT under general anaesthesia. Postoperative orthopaedic examinations and radiographs performed two weeks after surgery showed that two of the dogs had no pelvic limb lameness or patellar reluxation. One patient did not achieve complete MPL correction, despite the appropriate trochlear groove depth being obtained, due to extrinsic factors. The 3D-printed patient-specific saw guides facilitated precise customisation of the trochlear groove depth during SCRT in the dogs analysed in this study, highlighting the potential to enhance surgical accuracy. Therefore, this approach has the potential to advance MPL treatment by enabling greater surgical precision and addressing challenges associated with operative time and technical difficulty. Further studies with larger sample sizes and standardised protocols are needed to fully assess the clinical benefits and cost-effectiveness of this method.
The surgical procedure and post-surgical consequences of data logger implantation in ostrich chicks are described for the first time. Twenty-eight two-week-old ostrich chicks were anaesthetised with isoflurane for the implantation of miniature temperature data loggers into the coelom. Following surgery, the ostrich chicks regained consciousness within five minutes, and recovered quickly without complications. No signs of discomfort were noted during observations for 72-hours post-surgery. Detailed behavioural observations were conducted directly after surgery and thereafter every 15 minutes, for 30 minutes (at T0, T15, and T30). At T15, the chicks spent significantly less time sitting than at T0, and at T30 the percentage of sitting decreased further. Walking increased significantly at T30 compared to T0. Feeding behaviour increased at T15 compared to T0, followed by a further increase at T30. The percentage of chicks showing staggering and/or shivering behaviour was lower at T15 and T30 than at T0. For the seven days after surgery, the body temperature of the chicks ranged from 35.5 to 41.8 °C, with an overall mean of 39.3 °C. The surgical procedure was safe and suitable for young ostrich chicks, since the chicks recovered quickly after the procedure and had a 100% survival rate at one month after surgery.
Ulcerative balanoposthitis (UB) is a venereal disease which has frequently been diagnosed in sheep in South Africa (SA) since 1979, with no conclusive causative agent or treatment available. The purpose of this study was to determine whether ovine herpesvirus 2 (OvHV-2) can be used as biomarker to diagnose the early onset of UB in sheep flocks in SA. The study made use of 10 healthy Dohne Merino rams, two healthy Dorper rams, and 10 UB-affected Dorper rams. Smegma-, blood-, nasal swab- and sheath swab samples, respectively, were collected from all rams, and subjected to a single-tube hemi-nested PCR analysis to determine OvHV-2 status of all the sample types collected. The prevalence of OvHV-2 in all 22 animals was 22.75%, irrespective of breed or health status. The detection rate of OvHV-2 was 33.3% for the 10 UB-positive animals, and 16.7% for the 12 UB-negative animals. In blood, OvHV-2had a 4.54% detection rate, 8.33% in smegma, 13.64% in nasal samples, and a 0% detection in penile swabs. This study found nosignificant co-occurrence of UB and OvHV-2, which indicates that OvHV-2 cannot be considered as a biomarker for the early onset of UB or a causative agent of UB.
BACKGROUND:Colic is a common equine emergency requiring medical or surgical intervention. These interventions can be costly, making outcomes data and prognostic indicators essential for guiding referral and treatment decisions. OBJECTIVE:To determine survival rates to hospital discharge and evaluate prognostic indicators in equine colic cases treated at a referral hospital (Onderstepoort Veterinary Academic Hospital [OVAH], South Africa). METHODS:This retrospective observational cohort study analysed records from horses with colic that were presented to the OVAH from January 2019 to August 2021. Data included signalment, admission heart rate (HR) and packed cell volume (PCV), treatment type (medical vs. surgical), surgical diagnosis, postoperative complications, and survival to discharge. RESULTS:Of 415 cases, 375 were treated (292 medically, 83 surgically). 91% of medically, 77% of surgically treated, and 88% overall survived. Compared to a previous study, overall survival to discharge improved by 5% (p = 0.025), mainly due to improved surgical outcomes. Survival was associated with treatment type and surgical lesion site (lower for small intestinal than large intestinal lesions). Medically treated cases with an increased HR and surgical cases with a high PCV had lower survival rates. Signalment showed no association with outcomes. CONCLUSION:Survival rates to discharge were comparable to previously published international reports and showed significant improvement to previous results from the same institution, due to improved surgical outcomes. These findings can assist veterinarians in referral and treatment decisions. Further research on long-term survival and additional prognostic indicators is required to improve outcome predictions for equine colic treatment.
Population management of the African lion (Panthera leo) is often necessary in smaller non-contiguous systems. Ovariohysterectomies are commonly performed as a means of surgical birth control in many species by ventral-midline celiotomy, although a lateral laparotomy is used routinely in certain species and clinical settings. Ovariohysterectomies have been carried out in both captive and free-ranging African lion populations for birth control. This paper presents a left-lateral laparotomy (left-flank approach) for ovariohysterectomy in the free-ranging African lion, using the greater trochanter of the femur and the iliac crest as anatomical landmarks in order to determine the correct location for the abdominal incision. Unilateral ovariohysterectomies were successfully performed in three free-ranging lionesses by left-flank approach with no intra- or postoperative complications and rapid recovery. The procedure is swift, safe and provides an alternative to the ventral-midline celiotomy.
Many species of vulture are under threat from man-made inventions; this has led to wounded and sick vultures presenting for veterinary treatment and in need of pain management. Following the devastating effect of diclofenac on vultures in South Asia, meloxicam was found to be very safe for vultures, as a treatment as well as through ingestion of meat from treated animals. Many studies investigated the safety of meloxicam, and all found it to be safe up to 2 mg/kg, which was deemed the maximum likely exposure through treated carcasses. All studies exposed the birds either through oral dosing, treated meat or intramuscular administration, no instances of toxicity where recorded and all birds remained healthy. In this case the bird was exposed to a single dose of 2 mg/kg, intravenously, with no signs of toxicity. This appears to be the first recorded instance of accidental intravenous administration of meloxicam in a vulture.
BACKGROUND:Population numbers of free-roaming rhinoceros are dwindling while natural breeding in captive populations is challenged by sub-optimal fertility. When natural breeding programmes fail and population numbers continue to decline, the use of assisted reproduction technologies (ART) as a conservation tool to save wildlife species from extinction is imperative. Assisted breeding programmes in rhinoceros are challenging and attempts to develop species-specific ART beyond artificial insemination have been limited. This study evaluates various ex- and in-situ factors that could potentially affect in vitro oocyte maturation (IVM) in the Southern white rhinoceros (SWR). OBJECTIVE:To identify predictors of oocyte maturation following ovum pick-up (OPU) procedures performed on a large number of rhinoceros under different management conditions. METHODS:Data from 85 OPU procedures between November 2018 and June 2023 were obtained for this study. A total of 23 factors (three animal, four environmental, 16 laboratory) were evaluated as potentially affecting IVM success. RESULTS:Of the 85 procedures performed on 59 SWR, a total of 265 oocytes were collected with a median of two oocytes (range 0-18) per OPU. Eighteen (18) of the procedures yielded 0 oocytes. The overall maturation rate was 30% (80/265), and six identified factors had significant univariate associations with maturation outcome, of which three remained in the multivariable model. CONCLUSION:Farming system, season and oocyte density in maturation medium (> 100 ul/oocyte) were independently associated with improved maturation success (p < 0.05).
BACKGROUND:Current literature most commonly describes the use of the dissociative drug ketamine for the immobilisation of baboons, either on its own or in combination with other drugs such as α-2 agonists or benzodiazepines. Currently, no reversal is available for ketamine, leading to prolonged and often rough recoveries of the animals, especially if high doses of ketamine are used. OBJECTIVES:In this study, the fixed-dose combination of butorphanol, azaperone and medetomidine (BAM) with a low dose of ketamine (K-BAM) was evaluated for immobilisation and recovery parameters of chacma baboons. METHODS:Fifteen baboons were immobilised and monitored. Actual doses administered: BAM 0.01 ± 0.005 ml/kg (butorphanol 0.31 ± 0.15 mg/kg, azaperone 0.12 ± 0.06 mg/kg, medetomidine 0.12 ± 0.06 mg/kg) and ketamine 2.04 ± 0.22 mg/kg. During immobilisation, heart rate (HR), respiration rate (RR), peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2), end-tidal carbon dioxide (EtCO2), noninvasive blood pressure (BP) and blood gases were evaluated. RESULTS:Inductions were reached in 3.46 ± 1.36 minutes. Overall, severe hypoxaemia (SpO2: 62 ± 13%; PaO2: 37 ± 10 mmHg) was observed in all baboons as well as elevated EtCO2 (63 ± 9 mmHg) and PaCO2 (63 ± 9 mmHg) values. Other measured parameters stayed within normal ranges. Recoveries were fully reached at 4.8 ± 2.8 minutes after intramuscular injection of the reversal naltrexone and atipamezole. CONCLUSION:BAM with a low dose of ketamine produced short-term immobilisation, allowing for minor veterinary procedures. The severe hypoxaemia observed in all animals, however, raises serious concerns regarding the safety of this protocol.
Sporidesmin, a toxin released by a saprophytic fungus, Pseudopithomyces chartarum, causes hepatogenous photosensitivity in sheep and cattle, commonly known as Facial Eczema. A recent outbreak in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa caused significant direct and indirect economic losses to a farmer in the area and highlighted the potential negative consequences of this mycotoxicosis to the dairy industry in this province. The milking herd consisted of 400 cross-bred Jersey/Friesian/Montbilliard cattle. The farmer identified 56 cows showing teat sensitivity/irritability during milking, hypersensitive skin, excessive licking and/or obvious skin lesions on non-pigmented skin areas. Three were culled due to the severity of their skin lesions. Grazing consisted of mixed kikuyu/perennial rye grass pasture under pivot irrigation, alternated with dryland kikuyu/Italian rye and sorghum. Typical clinical signs of severe secondary photosensitivity (skin inflammation and hypersensitivity to touch), very high serum concentrations of Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase (GGT 2143-5177 IU/L) and detection of large numbers of spores on grazed planted pastures supported the clinical diagnosis. Supplementation of zinc oxide (ZnO) powder at 12g per 500 kg cow dosed individually over the concentrates fed in the dairy, effectively reduced the incidence of new cases within two to three weeks. Weight loss, a decrease in milk volume and solids, and increased somatic cell counts were observed during this outbreak. One of these parameters, milk volume loss, was quantified by comparing the financial records of the four years preceding the outbreak to the production figures during the outbreak. The farmer lost approximately R1.5 million in milk volume during this outbreak (November 2020 - April 2021). Long term consequences were also apparent: the culling rate within the clinically affected group of 53 cows was more than 50% higher than the rest of the herd over the following two years. This case study highlights the urgent need to investigate the prevalence and potential economic impact of Sporidesmin Toxicity on the South African pasture-based dairy industry.
As a newly-minted veterinarian and aspirant pathologist, my first publication reported on an osteosarcoma at the thoracic inlet of a dog (Schröder 1976). The case was noteworthy because it was unusual for an osteosarcoma to originate on the axial skeleton, rather than on one of the long bones. Several years later, now wearing a parasitologist's hat, I have asked myself on numerous occasions if I might have missed an aetiological diagnosis of spirocercosis because I was too fixated on the neoplasm and its location. My only aide memoire is the paper from 1976, according to which I looked for and found metastases in the liver and lungs, but alas, no indication that I had also examined the oesophageal wall carefully.
