Stress is a well-established antecedent of job burnout, while social support and self-efficacy serve as key protective resources whose roles may vary by employment status, a dimension that remains underexplored in research on coaches' burnout. The current study aimed to examine the mediation effects of social support and self-efficacy on the relationship between stress and job burnout, as well as to analyze the moderating effect of permanent/temporary job status. A total of 231 coaches registered with the Korean Sport & Olympic Committee and the Korean Paralympic Committee were recruited for the study and conditional process analysis was used for model testing. Stress exerted a significant direct effect on job burnout, while social support and self-efficacy served as indirect protective resources whose effects differed by employment status. Specifically, the buffering role of social support was stronger among coaches in permanent positions, whereas self-efficacy played a more critical role among coaches in temporary positions. These findings indicate that the stress-resource-burnout process operates differently depending on employment context, highlighting employment status as a key factor shaping burnout mechanisms among coaches.
Prolonged sitting impairs postprandial metabolic regulation, but the optimal frequency and duration of light-intensity walking breaks remain unclear. This study compared two walking-break protocols on postprandial glucose metabolism, lipid responses, and substrate oxidation in sedentary adult men. Sixteen sedentary adult men (age: 37.44 ± 6.42 years; BMI: 28.82 ± 3.30 kg/m2) completed three 300-min conditions in random order, separated by ≥7 days: 4-min walking after 50-min sitting intervals (50SW), 2-min walking at 30-min intervals (30SW), and uninterrupted sitting (SIT). Walking was performed at 40-50% of age-predicted HRmax. Blood samples were collected before and 1-5 h after standardized test drink ingestion. Compared with SIT, glucose tAUC was reduced by 7.8% in 50SW and 6.4% in 30SW (p = .002), and insulin tAUC was reduced by 20.1% and 18.2%, respectively (p < .001). Triglyceride and most lipid responses did not differ significantly, whereas both walking conditions increased fat oxidation and decreased carbohydrate oxidation. No significant differences were observed between 50SW and 30SW. These findings suggest that less frequent walking breaks may provide comparable acute metabolic benefits and greater occupational feasibility.
Low Energy Availability (LEA) and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) are associated with negative physical health outcomes, and growing evidence suggests connections with mental health problems. However, this relationship has not been systematically explored in university athletes. This review examined associations between LEA and adverse mental health symptoms in university athletes. The SPORTDiscus, Embase, PsychInfo, and Medline databases were searched from inception to May 2024, with an updated search in July 2025. Studies were included if they assessed relationships between validated mental health symptom measures and LEA in university athletes. LEA was measured either through direct calculation (<30 kcal/kg FFM/day) or through indicators recognised by the International Olympic Committee. Study quality was evaluated using modified Joanna Briggs Institute checklists. Eighteen studies were identified (17 cross-sectional, one prospective cohort). LEA prevalence was high (41.7%-100%). Consistent evidence showed co-occurring LEA and disordered eating, with cognitive dietary restraint and drive for thinness emerging as key correlates. Athletes with menstrual dysfunction had significantly higher disordered eating scores. Three studies examined anxiety and two examined depression, providing early evidence of increased prevalence with LEA. Integrated physical and mental health care, early intervention, and improved nutritional literacy may help reduce risks associated with LEA.
Early pregnancy loss is common and can have significant physical and psychological impacts on women. Physical activity may support emotional and physical recovery; however, no specific guidelines exist for women following early pregnancy loss, and little is known about their experiences of returning to activity. This study explored how women navigated their return to physical activity after early pregnancy loss. Twenty-three semi-structured interviews were conducted with women who had experienced early pregnancy loss in Australia, and data were analysed thematically. Three key themes were generated: 1. A lack of clear professional guidance about physical activity increases uncertainty, 2. The complexity of deciding when to return to physical activity, and 3. The perceived benefits of physical activity during recovery. No participants reported receiving proactive advice about physical activity from health professionals, contributing to uncertainty about how to safely resume activity. Participants' decisions about returning to activity were shaped by physical symptoms, emotional readiness, past exercise experiences and social relationships. All participants described meaningful benefits from re-engaging in physical activity, including emotional relief, well-being, and a sense of control. These findings highlight the need for flexible, evidence-informed physical activity guidance that reflects both the emotional and physical dimensions of recovery following early pregnancy loss.
Our aim was to investigate the effects of downhill running (DR) on lower-limb strength and uphill walking (UW) economy, ventilatory pattern, and step kinematics. Thirty-six experienced trail runners (11 females; 45 ± 8 years, BMI: 23 ± 2.4 kg/m2, VO2peak: 57 ± 8 ml O2.kg-1.min-1) completed a cardiopulmonary exercise test to determine first ventilatory threshold (VT1). During a second visit, UW economy at VT1 (5 min at 20% gradient), expressed as vertical oxygen cost (OCvert) and energy cost of transport (ECvert), was tested before and after a DR bout (5 km at -15% gradient; intensity set by matching HR to HR at uphill VT1). Isometric ankle plantar flexion and half-squat strength (PF and SQ) were assessed pre- and post-DR. During UW, minute ventilation (VE), frequency of respiration (FR), tidal volume (VT), step length (SL), and frequency (SF) were recorded. DR did not alter OCvert or ECvert. PF and SQ exhibited small declines (d = -0.49 and d = -0.25, respectively). VE and FR rose slightly (d = 0.17 and d = 0.43, respectively), while VT decreased marginally (d = -0.15). SL remained unchanged, whereas SF dropped slightly (d = -0.15). A 5-km submaximal DR bout did not deteriorate UW economy. However, the ventilatory response shifted slightly towards a more superficial breathing pattern, and a small impairment in lower-limb strength was observed.
Olympic rowing demands high endurance and complex neuromuscular abilities, yet evidence on their relationship with rowing performance is limited. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined associations between neuromuscular strength measures and rowing ergometer performance. Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search of PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, and Scopus was conducted. Among 1,435 identified studies on rowing-specific strength and ergometer performance, 11 met inclusion criteria. Meta-analyses were performed for strength exercises examined in ≥3 studies. Meta-analyses (n = 9) showed strong, significant correlations between maximal strength of leg press/back squat (r = -0.72, p < 0.05) and bench pull (r = -0.71, p < 0.001) with rowing ergometer performance. Six studies demonstrated significant positive associations between explosive strength and rowing power (r = 0.29-0.86, p < 0.050) and negative correlations with rowing time (r = -0.53--0.81, p < 0.050). Strength-endurance (n = 2) correlated significantly with rowing time (r = -0.54--0.68). Five studies using linear regression models explained 54.0-97.5% of 2000 m performance, identifying maximal and explosive strength, alongside physiological and anthropometric variables, as key predictors. This review provides strong evidence linking maximal and explosive strength to rowing ergometer performance. Future research should assess race-phase and stroke-specific neuromuscular demands and evaluate targeted strength training interventions to optimize rowing performance.
While 360° videos have shown promise for enhancing perceptual-cognitive skills in sport, the mechanisms underlying its advantages over traditional video-based training remain unclear. This study tested whether 360° videos promote different visual search strategies compared to traditional fixed screens (FS), and whether these strategies vary based on expertise level. Thirty-six participants (17 highly-trained basketball players, 19 novices) viewed the same 25 basketball video clips in 360° and FS modes while their eye and head movements were recorded by an eye tracker embedded in a head-mounted display. Gaze events were categorized (fixation, saccade, smooth pursuit, visual scanning) and compared using two-way ANOVAs with viewing modality and expertise as factors. Compared to FS, 360° videos elicited more smooth pursuit and visual scanning behaviors (p < 0.001), alongside fewer and shorter visual fixations and saccades (p < 0.001). No main effect of expertise was observed, except novices exhibited larger saccade amplitudes than highly-trained players in the 360° videos modality (p < 0.008). These results indicate that the FS modality promoted fixation-dominant behavior likely driven by the constrained visual environment, whereas the 360° modality afforded a more fluid search strategy, potentially reflecting real-world visual behavior and supporting its higher ecological validity for perceptual-cognitive training.
Force-plate countermovement jump (CMJ) testing is widely used to assess neuromuscular status, yet monitoring interpretation often relies on best-trial values from abbreviated protocols, potentially biasing conclusions when the session maximum occurs beyond the sampled attempts. We mapped peak-trial timing across a six-trial clustered (3 + 3) CMJ protocol for seven outcome and strategy force-time metrics, and tested whether this peak-trial pattern was preserved between personal best (PB) and typical state (TS) monitoring sessions, both defined using modified reactive strength index (mRSI) as the primary selection variable. Retrospective dual-force-plate data (1000 Hz; August 2020-December 2025) were analysed from 314 athletes who performed two sets of three maximal no-arm-swing CMJs (5-10 s between repetitions; 60-90 s between sets). Peak-trial distributions deviated from uniform for all metrics (all Bonferroni-adjusted p ≤ 3.4 × 10-3; Cramér's V = 0.12-0.26). On PB days, the most frequent peak occurred on repetition 4 for output metrics (25.8-30.3%) and propulsive power (29.3%), on repetition 6 for braking force/power (31.2-34.1%), and on repetition 1 for stiffness (27.4%) and propulsive force (31.8%). Critically, peak-repetition distributions were nearly identical between PB and TS days for every metric (all p ≥ 0.386; Cramér's V ≤ 0.091).
Grounded in Fredrickson's broaden-and-build theory, this study examined how dispositional optimism predicts athlete thriving through the sequential mediating roles of Attribution of Disciplinary Coaching (ADC) and mental toughness. A national sample of 610 elite Chinese athletes completed relevant measures. SEM with Bootstrap analysis (5,000 resamples) revealed that optimism directly predicted thriving (β = .19, 95% CI [0.077, 0.327]; H1). Functional attribution positively mediated this relationship (indirect effect = .11, 95% CI [0.059, 0.192]; H2a), while hostile attribution negatively mediated it (indirect effect = .02, 95% CI [0.002, 0.050]; H2b). Mental toughness also functioned as a significant mediator (indirect effect = .13, 95% CI [0.074, 0.239]; H3). Functional attribution and mental toughness together formed a significant sequential mediation pathway (indirect effect = .04, 95% CI [0.018, 0.082]; H4a), whereas the hostile attribution pathway was not supported (H4b). These findings identify causal attribution as a previously understudied cognitive mechanism linking optimism to thriving, and position mental toughness as a generative resource built through positive cognitive processing rather than a purely defensive buffer. Practical implications for attribution retraining and coach communication are discussed, with the acknowledgement that cultivating athlete psychological resources should complement rather than substitute efforts toward more supportive coaching environments.
Cadence has been proposed as an important component of wheelchair racing performance, yet the effects of cadence-based training on time-trial (TT) performance remain unclear. This pilot study evaluated the effects of a cadence-based training intervention on 3-kilometer TT performance in elite wheelchair-racing athletes. Twelve elite racers (6 men, 6 women; 18-35 years) completed a 21-day cadence-based training protocol using individualized cadence zones guided by wearable sensor sleeves and metronome cues. All training sessions were conducted on indoor rollers, with pre- and post-intervention 3-kilometer TTs performed on a stationary roller dynamometer. Following the intervention, 3-kilometer TT performance improved significantly (mean improvement ≈16 s; p < .05), while self-selected cadence did not change. Changes in cadence were not significantly associated with performance improvements. The mechanisms underlying these performance gains cannot be determined from the present study design. These findings provide preliminary evidence that individualized cadence-based training may improve wheelchair racing performance without altering athletes' preferred cadence strategies.
High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and strength exercise (SE) induce corticospinal plasticity in exercised and non-exercised muscles. While HIIT's systemic neuromodulatory effects are well-established, SE's comparable remote responses remain unclear. This study investigated changes in corticospinal, intracortical, and spinal excitability, as well as motor performance, in non-exercised flexor carpi radialis following single-session HIIT and plantar flexion SE. Using a randomised crossover design, eighteen participants completed: (1) 20-minute high-intensity interval cycling, (2) high-intensity resistive plantar flexion, and (3) control. Corticospinal responses were assessed using transcranial magnetic stimulation and peripheral nerve stimulation; motor performance through reaction time tasks and maximum voluntary force at baseline and post-exercise. Only HIIT significantly increased motor-evoked potential amplitude (p = 0.002) and reduced short-interval intracortical inhibition (p = 0.04). HIIT reduced silent period duration compared to baseline and control (p <0.001), while SE showed reduction only versus control (p <0.001). Both HIIT and SE improved reaction time compared to baseline and control (p <0.05). These findings highlight differential corticospinal responses in a remote, non-exercised muscle, with HIIT inducing distributed excitability enhancements compared to SE. Unilateral, small-muscle SE may be insufficient to induce widespread corticospinal excitability changes, with implications for neurorehabilitation strategies targeting remote muscle groups.
The time constraints associated with the return of serve in professional wheelchair tennis have yet to be established so the importance of advance (pre-contact) information and anticipation are unknown. The aim of this study is to quantify these time constraints and examine how temporal and task-related factors (e.g. serve number and serve accuracy) influence return outcomes. Video footage of 369 returns-of-serve by 19 players competing in 13 matches from international tournaments was used to calculate ball transit time and serve accuracy, together with the returner's movement initiation time, movement time, quality of position just before they contacted the ball, and effectiveness of the shot. The time constraints for first and second serves were compared and linear multilevel modelling was used to determine the relationship between the timing variables and the shot outcome variables. Movement initiation time was the same for first and second serves. Faster and more accurate serves predicted a more defensive returner position and lower ratings of return effectiveness; however, movement initiation time was a non-significant predictor. The implications of these results for the importance of early visual information sources in wheelchair tennis are discussed.
Maintaining stable motor performance under stress is crucial. Clarifying whether and under what conditions different learning methods produce differences in motor performance stability and its neural mechanisms holds both theoretical and practical value. This study aimed to investigate how learning methods and reinvestment propensity influence motor performance and its neural mechanisms in stressful situations. Using a golf putting task, 60 learners were grouped into high/low CMP propensity groups and further divided into four subgroups based on learning methods (analogy, explicit). Results indicated that stress intervention effectively induced subjective anxiety changes in learners. Behaviorally, no significant interaction between learning methods and CMP propensity was observed during test phase transitions. Neurologically, a significant interaction between CMP propensity and test phase was observed in T7-Fz coherence: low CMP individuals exhibited significantly increased T7-Fz coherence under stress, while high CMP individuals remained stable. No significant interaction between learning methods and test phase was found. In this study, under stressful conditions, CMP propensity had a more pronounced effect on motor performance than learning methods. This offers new theoretical and practical perspectives in the field of motor skill learning.
Repeated head impacts in combat sports may impair cognitive functions such as memory, processing speed and executive functioning. This cross-sectional study investigated cognitive performance in 63 athletes (M = 25.56, SD = 5.46 years, all men) from combat sports with varying levels of head impact. Participants were divided into three groups: professional impact-sport athletes (n = 21; boxing, kickboxing, MMA), amateur impact-sport athletes (n = 21) and a control group practicing low-impact combat sports (n = 21; judo, wrestling, jiu-jitsu). All completed a neuropsychological battery assessing processing speed, attention, memory, executive functions and visuospatial abilities. Tests included the Auditory Verbal Learning Test, Rey Complex Figure Test, Verbal Fluency, Digit Span and Digit Symbol-Coding (WAIS-III) and the Clock Drawing Test. Results showed that professional impact-sport athletes scored significantly lower in processing speed and verbal learning and memory than the control group. No significant cognitive differences were found between professional and amateur impact-sport athletes. These findings suggest that repeated head impacts, rather than competition level alone, are associated to reduced cognitive performance. Future research should use longitudinal designs, analyze sports separately, include women athletes, and examine emotional and behavioral outcomes to better understand the long-term cognitive impact of combat sports.
This systematic review aimed to identify the most commonly used variables for monitoring external load during elite women's football matches and to compare reporting practices internationally and in Brazil. Searches were conducted in Web of Science, PubMed, and SciELO using the PICOS framework between February and March 2026, resulting in the inclusion of 35 studies. The main outcomes analysed were total distance covered (TD), distance covered across speed zones (HSR, VHSR, sprint), number of accelerations and decelerations, and maximum speed. TD and distance covered across speed zones were the most frequently reported indicators (94.3%), followed by HSR (82.8%) and sprint distance (68.5%). Considerable variability was observed in the classification of speed zones and thresholds used to define accelerations and decelerations, limiting comparisons between studies. External load values varied according to playing position and competition level, with international matches generally imposing greater demands than national competitions. Brazilian research remains limited and demonstrates notable methodological variability. This review proposes standardised speed and acceleration/deceleration thresholds based on the most recurrent ranges reported in the literature, supporting improved consistency in monitoring practices across elite women's football contexts.
This study examined the effect of age on force output and muscle anthropometric differences in the arm flexor and leg extensor muscles. Seventy-four participants aged 16 to 71 years participated in the study. Peak force output was significantly negatively correlated with increasing age in the leg extensor muscles (r = - 0.46; p = 0.015), while in the arm flexor muscles this relationship was not significant (r = - 0.16; p = 0.181). After adjustment for activity level, age was an independent predictor of arm and leg peak force values (all p < 0.01). Lean muscle volume was also significantly negatively correlated with age in the leg muscles (r = - 0.46, p = 0.01), while in the arm muscles this correlation was not significant (r = 0.04, p = 0.739). Peak force was significantly positively correlated with lean volume in both leg (r = 0.64; p = 0.01) and arm (r = 0.74; p = 0.01) muscles, indicating that loss of muscle mass in the leg may be the main cause of the decrements in force output with increasing age in the legs compared to the arm muscles. These findings suggest that decrements in force output in the knee extensors, which are associated with increasing age, were related to decreases in lean volume of the muscles of the lower limb. These findings identify that leg muscles are more greatly affected by age-related strength losses than in the arm muscles, which has implications for both training in the elderly and precautions against falls when ambulatory using the lower limbs, with the lower limbs perhaps needing more focused strength training to attenuate these age-related effects.
This study examined the relationships among annual growth rate, inter-limb asymmetry, and physical performance in 129 elite youth male soccer players (U14-U19). Players were classified into three groups: fast (>7.2 cm·year⁻1; n=30), mid (3.5-7.2 cm·year⁻1; n=31), and slow (<3.5 cm·year⁻1; n=68). Assessments included bilateral and unilateral countermovement jumps (CMJ, CMJL, CMJR), sprinting, change-of-direction, isometric mid-thigh pull, and Nordic hamstring strength.Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in age, body mass, height, and percentage of predicted adult height (%PAH), with slow growers showing more advanced biological status. Slow growers generally outperformed the other groups in physical tests. However, no significant differences in inter-limb asymmetry were found (p > 0.05), and the directional consistency was low (Kappa: -0.23 to 0.14).The annual growth rate showed strong negative correlations with age and %PAH (r = -0.59) and moderate associations with anthropometric and performance variables (r = -0.48 to 0.45). Within the fast group, growth rate was negatively associated with CMJ and CMJR performance (r = -0.49 to -0.46).These findings highlight the importance of considering growth and maturation in youth performance, although the growth rate does not appear to influence inter-limb asymmetry.
Psychological skills training (PST) is widely used in sport, but review-level evidence remains fragmented across interventions, populations, outcomes, and methodological standards. This umbrella review synthesized evidence on PST-related interventions for sport-related outcomes, including athletic performance, psychological outcomes, cognitive performance, and sports injury, and evaluated evidence credibility, certainty, and methodological quality. A systematic literature search was conducted on 21 May 2025 in MEDLINE, PsycInfo, PubMed, Scopus, SportDiscus, Web of Science, and CINAHL Complete. Overall, 61 reviews involving 42,106 participants were included; 35 meta-analyses involving 28,076 participants were eligible for quantitative synthesis, and 26 reviews or meta-analyses involving 14,030 participants were summarized qualitatively. Quantitative findings showed generally positive point estimates for mindfulness-based interventions, imagery practice, music-based interventions, neurofeedback, perceptual-cognitive training, and multiple PST interventions, but most findings were weak or non-significant and certainty was generally very low. Qualitative evidence suggested potential benefits, but conclusions varied according to intervention definition, delivery, outcome measurement, and methodological quality. Evidence was more developed for athletic performance and psychological outcomes than for cognitive performance and sports injury. Overall, PST-related interventions may benefit sport-related outcomes, but conclusions should remain cautious because of low certainty, methodological heterogeneity, and limited evidence credibility.
The aim of this scoping review was to map the key biomechanical and physiological variables explored in the wheelchair racing literature, with additional attention to data collection environments and technologies. Relevant articles published up to 3 February 2025 were identified using four databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Scopus). After screening, 31 studies were included in the final analysis: 15 on biomechanics, 7 on physiology, and 9 contained elements of both. Most athletes measured were male (78%) and competing in the T51-54 classification; females and athletes with coordination impairment (T32-34) were underrepresented. Various distances and protocols were examined, ranging from the first six pushes to 90 min, with 100 m being the most frequently studied distance. Most data were collected in laboratory settings using roller systems, motorised treadmills or ergometers. Biomechanical data indicated push technique, including increasing upper-arm angular velocity, and optimising acceleration are fundamental to achieve competitive speeds. Physiological studies measured parameters such as V˙O2peak, blood lactate concentration and heart rate, though direct links to performance remain limited. This review highlights methodological diversity across studies and suggests that integrating technologies such as inertial measurement units, three-dimensional motion capture, and force-instrumented rollers/wheels may enhance understanding of determinants in wheelchair racing.
The aim of this systematic review was to (1) identify differences in isometric force plate testing procedures for the ankle plantarflexors and (2) determine the reliability of existing methods to inform minimum reporting standards. A systematic search of PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, MEDLINE and CINAHL was conducted from inception to 2025, for peer-reviewed studies using portable force plates to assess isometric plantarflexor force. PRISMA guidelines were followed. Two independent reviewers assessed methodological quality using the COSMIN Risk of Bias tool and Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool, with discrepancies resolved collaboratively. Twenty studies met the inclusion criteria, revealing methodological variations in task familiarisation, participant instructions, joint angles, sources of compliance, statistical analyses and force plate considerations. Within-session peak force demonstrated good to excellent reliability (ICC ≥ 0.91, 95% CI range 0.84-0.99) based on eleven studies of adequate quality. Evidence for between-session reliability is limited, with three studies identified: two of doubtful quality and one of adequate quality. No researchers have examined the reliability of plantarflexor force-time values. Across the included studies, portable force plates provide reliable within-session peak plantarflexor force data across testing positions. Future research should explore between-session reliability and temporal variables using standardised protocols.
