Research animal facilities are often perceived as the defining element of high-quality animal care and use; however, international standards and accreditation practices increasingly emphasize that the animal care and use program (ACUP), rather than the physical infrastructure, is the central determinant of animal welfare, scientific quality, and ethical and legal oversight. This paper examines the relationship between the animal facility and a robust ACUP, arguing that the facility should be understood primarily as an enabling component of a broader institutional system. There is no universal 'ideal' facility design. Instead, infrastructure must be fit for purpose, reflecting the species housed, the nature of the research, institutional scale, available expertise, and staffing. A performance-based approach provides the most appropriate framework for evaluating facility adequacy, focusing on measurable welfare and operational outcomes rather than prescriptive engineering standards alone. The facility should actively support the implementation of the 3Rs (Replacement, Refinement, and Reduction) and the culture of care, promote operational efficiency, and incorporate principles of environmental and financial sustainability. Continual evaluation and improvement are essential to ensure that facilities and ACUPs evolve alongside animal, scientific, and institutional needs. General observations commonly made during AAALAC International accreditation site visits further illustrate how programmatic strength can compensate for infrastructure limitations, while well-designed facilities cannot substitute for weak governance or oversight. Ultimately, excellence in research animal care arises from the alignment of infrastructure, institutional culture of care, ethical responsibility, and programmatic management, with the facility serving as a flexible tool that supports, rather than defines, a high-quality animal care and use program.
The scientific exploration of the capacity of fishes to experience pain has grown since the first identification of nociceptors in rainbow trout in 2002. In the early years up to 2010 anatomical and electrophysiological evidence was gathered that demonstrated that the characteristics of peripheral and central nervous system responses were comparable to mammals. Combined with behavioural investigations where fishes exhibited anomalous responses to painful treatment that were ameliorated by pain-relieving drugs subsequent studies were fuelled by this convincing evidence. More contemporary studies have explored several species and investigated a wider variety of pain types, with zebrafish proposed as a model for the study of nociception and pain. Both operational and laboratory welfare indicators are detailed for several species which can be evaluated by the tank side or by additional behavioural scoring software and laboratory equipment. Even with this progress over the last 24 years many aspects still need to be uncovered. For efficient pain management for fishes used in science, a wider range of species need to be assessed during invasive procedures; the mechanism of action and pharmacokinetics of pain-relieving drugs must be elucidated so scientists can make informed choices, as well as identifying any possible side-effects; combinatorial strategies where more than one drug is administered at lower doses to reduce side-effects should be investigated; and pain assessment tools using intensity scales or monitoring using artificial intelligence evaluation software provides promise as an aid to identifying pain and allowing researchers to intervene to improve fish welfare.
Refinements to improve the lives of animals used in science are generally endorsed by research institutions and regulatory bodies, but laboratory animal professionals face many barriers in implementing refinements. We sought to understand 1) attitudes and perceptions of barriers and solutions, and 2) how implementation of refinement may be influenced by norms and perceived behavioural control. We conducted three focus groups with 32 attendees at a Canadian laboratory animal science symposium, using semi-structured, open-ended questions. Five themes emerged: evidence and impact on research outcomes, regulatory oversight, operational limitations, institutional culture, and responsibility. Each of these themes was seen as influencing individual capacity to implement refinements. Overall, participants expressed positive attitudes towards refinement combined with frustration due to their limited ability to enact change. Barriers included decision-makers being disconnected from animal facility operations, an institutional culture that does not adequately value refinement, lack of time and money, concerns about impacts on data, and resistance to change among colleagues and animal users. Regulations were seen as both a barrier (when decision-makers did not support refinements beyond minimally required practices) and a solution (when refinements were explicitly required). Potential solutions included updates to regulations, assessments from oversight bodies, integration of the 3Rs into funding and grant review processes, greater inclusion of laboratory animal professionals in decision-making, and promotion of refinements during personnel training. Cultivating an institutional culture that prioritises refinement and addressing barriers to the perceived behavioural control of laboratory animal professionals could help to increase refinement uptake.
Bipolar vessel sealing is presented as a technical refinement for fowl cecectomy. Over a 13-year period, 123 laying hens aged 20-50 weeks underwent cecectomy. Two hemostatic methods were evaluated: vessel ligation with absorbable sutures (n = 68) and bipolar vessel sealing using a clamp (n = 55). Both methods provided safe hemostasis with no differences in postoperative recovery. However, vessel sealing was significantly faster (p < 0.0001) and easier to learn. Mean anesthesia time reduced from 77.28 min to 51.24 min. To our knowledge, this is the first comparative report of vessel sealing in fowl cecectomy. We strongly recommend this technique as a means of improving animal welfare.
A five-week-old female B6.129S4-C3tm1Crr/J (C3 knockout) mouse presented with abdominal distension and reduced general condition. The animal was euthanized and submitted for necropsy. Gross examination revealed marked dilation of the left kidney and ureter, both containing clear fluid consistent with urine and a focal rupture of the renal capsule with associated uroabdomen. Histopathological evaluation revealed multicystic renal dysplasia characterized by immature glomeruli, primitive tubules, persistent mesenchyme, and dilated collecting ducts, accompanied by a tortuous and dilated ureter. In addition, chronic arteritis was identified in a medium-sized artery within the affected kidney.
This reflective perspective on leadership in research animal care programs and the management of their operations aims to provide guiding principles, transferable across regulatory and institutional systems, for navigating current influences and future challenges. Inimitable leaders are those who embrace management with elevated professional standards, innovative insights, and sensitivity to the needs of multiple stakeholders. While a foundation in veterinary medicine and animal science is the most common background among directors of animal research programs, particularly those employed in the United States, managers and leaders everywhere need to be prepared for a future that will rely on clear communication, operational efficiency, skilled negotiations, overt investments in a Culture of Care and the 3Rs, and self-education for continuous improvement. As the future landscape of traditional animal models and translational research shifts irreversibly toward non-animal and novel alternative methodologies, so too should the inimitable leaders of tomorrow evolve to navigate the nuanced balance among animal welfare, biomedical discovery, and public scrutiny surrounding science for the benefit of humans and animals alike.
Where simulations are not enough to reveal biological processes, researchers in many fields choose to study animals. Among them, those working in laboratory animal science have unique insights and responsibilities, as their interactions with other species are never just a means to an end, but aimed towards understanding and improving those animals' welfare. In addition, its practitioners often hold key functions in between professional communities. Their attitudes and practices regarding errors thus affect those of many others. Despite growing recognition of the value of systematic error prevention and organisational learning, transparent and constructive error cultures are still rare in research facilities. This perspective article takes a brief look at the state of error reporting in laboratory animal science. We argue that the fragmented adoption of technological solutions reflects a deeper cultural deficit, and that changing it requires sustained effort by practitioners themselves. Genuine error cultures are not merely a compliance exercise, but a moral and institutional imperative - and as such, an integral part of Cultures of Care. Social science concepts like psychological safety or resilience engineering, as well as descriptive frameworks common to strategic management, provide tools to refocus attention on currently unresolved issues. With this in mind, we identify key challenges to be confronted at the level of individuals, institutions, and ecosystems. We outline a forward-looking vision in which error reporting becomes both an internalised cultural practice and standard operating procedure, employee wellbeing is structurally embedded and we engage proactively and responsibly with public expectations.
Surgical training remains one of the most consequential yet historically underexamined components of laboratory animal science (LAS). While advances in anesthesia, analgesia, asepsis, and oversight have improved welfare and scientific rigor, training has often relied on decentralized apprenticeship models with variable structure and assessment, sometimes leaving foundational surgical standards such as aseptic workflow, sterile gowning, and gloving insufficiently formalized. As regulatory expectations, societal scrutiny, and research complexity have increased, the limitations of exposure-based training have become more apparent. This perspective examines the evolution of rodent surgical training in LAS, highlighting both the strengths of the modern training ecosystem and persistent gaps in standardization, access, and competency assessment. Emerging simulation technologies, including 3D-printed and hybrid models, offer scalable opportunities to reduce training-related animal use, shorten learning curves, and introduce objective performance benchmarks before live procedures. Evidence from surgical education and experimental microsurgery supports a hybrid, competency-based approach in which simulation prepares trainees for supervised live animal work rather than replacing it. Looking ahead, coordinated validation frameworks, shared assessment tools, and institutional commitment will be essential to transition toward a structured, data-driven, and ethically aligned post-apprenticeship model of laboratory animal surgical training.
The Federation of European Laboratory Animal Science Associations (FELASA) has played a pivotal role in ensuring high-quality education and training in laboratory animal sciences via accrediting courses. FELASA has revised its accreditation framework to reflect the evolving needs of the laboratory animal science community. This paper outlines the criteria for accrediting courses that train individuals for specific functions (A-D) (Article 23), roles (Articles 24(1)a-c; 25; 34; 38), Specialists in Laboratory Animal Sciences, and a selection of stand-alone modules. The accreditation process involves two steps: a self-assessment of the course and an on-site audit. Special attention is paid to constructive alignment, a tiered approach to skill acquisition, prioritising non-animal alternatives, ethical use of live animals, and structured assessments. FELASA's accreditation ensures that laboratory animal science education remains ethically responsible, scientifically robust and pedagogically sound.
The chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (BD) poses a serious threat to amphibian species worldwide. BD infects keratinocytes of the skin and interferes with their physiological barrier function. The African clawed frog Xenopus laevis is a species with low susceptibility to BD. Nevertheless, any infection presents a challenge to the immune system and, when combined with other stressors, carries the risk of overwhelming the body's defense. Infected animals may show greater variability in their scientific output than uninfected animals. This, in turn, means that more animals have to be used, which is not in line with the 3Rs principle. Moreover, releasing the fungus into the wastewater system should clearly be avoided to prevent infection of wild amphibians. Following confirmation of BD infection in the animals by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), we decided to eradicate the fungus due to the reasons outlined above. This project involved not only the treatment of our frogs but also the timely coordinated disinfection of our entire permanently installed aquarium system. Itraconazole was applied as an immersion bath for the frogs and heat was used to disinfect the aquarium system. In this report, we outline our complex approach to a logistically demanding, labor-intensive project involving a large team of staff. We emphasize the need for straightforward planning, good communication and reporting on unexpected aspects and findings.
The 18th National Congress of the Spanish Society for Laboratory Animal Science (SECAL), held in Bilbao from 18 to 21 November 2025, brought together approximately 400 professionals from across the laboratory animal science community. The meeting featured a comprehensive and high-quality scientific programme addressing key topics such as biosafety, occupational health, the use of aquatic models, technological innovation and the implementation of the 3Rs (Replacement, Reduction and Refinement) principles. The congress combined plenary sessions, workshops, oral and poster presentations and round-table discussions, fostering knowledge exchange and professional interaction. A dedicated session on the translation of animal research to clinical applications provided an interdisciplinary perspective involving scientists, welfare experts and patient representatives. The event highlighted the continued commitment of the community to scientific excellence, ethical responsibility and innovation, reinforcing the role of the SECAL Congress as a leading national forum in laboratory animal science.
Transparent reporting of animal research is both a scientific and ethical imperative and is linked to both research quality and the principles of Replacement, Reduction, and Refinement (3Rs). Persistent concerns about poor reproducibility, limited translation and research waste have driven reforms in reporting standards and data-sharing requirements. However, despite considerable progress over the past 60 years, substantial gaps remain. Many published studies still lack essential methodological detail, such as animal characteristics, welfare measures, bias minimization methods (such as randomization and blinding), and sample size justification. Non-reporting of negative or null results further distorts the evidence base. A major barrier to change has been inadequate training of researchers in best practices for experimental design and statistical analysis. We describe how standardized reporting frameworks can promote research quality and highlight tools available to assist the researcher in implementing best practices in study design, reporting, and data accessibility. Over the next decade, emerging applications such as automated compliance tools and AI-assisted screening will offer scalable approaches to adoption of reporting standards. Preclinical science itself will be profoundly altered by advances in alternative models, open data, and linked machine-readable research outputs that will shift the research culture from isolated studies to an integrated cumulative evidence ecosystem. However, an expanded evidence base will be of value only if methodological quality is prioritized over novelty. Embedding best practices at study inception coupled with transparency will enhance reproducibility, reduce waste, and strengthen the reliability and translational value of animal research.
Temporomandibular disorders affect about 12% of the industrialized population, and their complex management often results in recurrence or treatment failure. Among animal models, the pig is particularly relevant owing to its anatomical similarity to humans, although specific differences in the zygomatic arch and mandibular fossa require adapted surgical approaches. We describe and validate a standardized surgical approach to the porcine temporomandibular joint (TMJ) suitable for translational research. Eleven cadavers of Sus scrofa domestica were dissected to identify key anatomical structures. A high condylectomy was performed to establish a reproducible surgical pathway, and the caudal intra-articular injection technique was tested using methylene blue to assess its feasibility. The pig's TMJ area consists of superficial muscles such as the platysma and parotidoauricularis, with deeper structures such as the parotid gland, facial nerve and major vessels, while the bony anatomy includes a large condylar head and a superficial zygomatic arch. The proposed surgical approach to the pig TMJ involves a retromandibular incision with preauricular extension, subperiostal dissection to expose the zygomatic arch and articular capsule, followed by an incision to access the condyle, disc and mandibular fossa, allowing for condylectomy with careful preservation of the facial nerve and surrounding structures. This study highlights the anatomical differences with humans, such as the presence of the parotidoauricularis muscle, which lies superficially to the facial nerve and serves as a useful landmark for a safe dissection. The described approach provides a reliable and reproducible technique for future TMJ surgical studies in the pig model.
The use of animals as a model for humans has a long history. This paper describes in a bird's eye view the main developments from the ancient period until recent times. Although animal models have been used since the early Greek and Roman civilizations, the main increase in their use dates from the end of the Second World War. Not only did the number of animals used in experiments increase dramatically in this period, but also the variety of species, as well as the purposes for which animals were used. However, from the 1970s onwards, the number of animal experiments has decreased. The reasons for this decrease are briefly explored.
Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women worldwide, underscoring the need for ethical and effective preclinical models to advance disease management. This study aimed to highlight the importance of humane endpoints in a rat model of mammary carcinogenesis undergoing ladder resistance training to evaluate and ensure the absence of animal suffering. Twenty-eight female Wistar rats were assigned randomly to four groups of seven animals per group: sedentary, sedentary induced (with N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU)), exercised and exercised MNU-induced. At 7 weeks of age, the animals in the induced groups were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with the carcinogenic agent (N-methyl-N-nitrosourea; i.p; 50 mg/kg). The animals' welfare was monitored using a set of biological characteristics. The resistance exercise training, started at 9 weeks old and comprised climbing a ladder three times per week for 18 weeks, gradually increasing the load throughout the protocol. Of 14 MNU-induced rats, 9 (64%) developed mammary cancer. Exercised rats tended to show delayed tumor ulceration despite larger tumor volumes. No significant differences in bodyweight were observed, although weight loss appeared earlier in sedentary-induced animals. Exercised rats exhibited more stress signs, including reduced grooming and one case of chromodachryorrhea, yet had lower tumor-related humane endpoint scores. Three rats were euthanised early due to tumor-related endpoints. Minor tail wounds occurred but did not affect exercise or welfare. These results indicate that, with careful endpoint monitoring, the exercise protocol is well tolerated and may improve performance in tumour-bearing rats, supporting ethical standards while allowing accurate investigation of resistance training effects.
Animals used in research and testing face physical and mental challenges, which may cause mild to severe pain and distress. Pain and distress are generally considered in the context of the analogy postulate and the precautionary principle. The analogy postulate refers to (patho-)physiological similarities between humans and vertebrates, assuming that manipulations causing pain and distress in humans do so equally in vertebrates. According to the precautionary principle, animals will be considered to have pain/distress in the absence of any scientific consensus as to the presence or absence of pain. Although those principles can be useful guides for humane treatment of laboratory animals, they do not address the subjectivity involved in recognising pain/distress. A reliable estimate of animal pain and distress can be derived from both behavioural and physiological indicators. Distress and pain are biological phenomena that motivate behaviours aimed at alleviating these states. If no behaviour achieves the expected outcome, the animal may switch to other modes, such as depression or learned helplessness. Pain is regarded as a biologically adaptive mechanism, alerting organisms to possible damage or injury. The effect of experimental procedures on perceived pain/distress may depend on physical and social environmental conditions. Observation schemes can be used to assess and monitor daily for clinical signs or problems. They can help reduce pain/distress and provide adequate care. Competent observation of animals is also basic to the correct implementation of humane endpoints. AI will transform research. Intelligent systems will generate data, enable early stress detection and improve animal welfare.
Successfully implementing the 3R principles relies on a range of interdependent factors operating across multiple levels. As such, any effort to advance the 3Rs must engage with this complexity and incorporate the lived experiences of stakeholders to inform policy advancements. In an interview-based study, we gathered insights from 35 Swiss researchers on the implementation of the 3Rs in Switzerland. Using reflexive thematic analysis, we identified two overarching categories of facilitation: originative facilitation, referring to the collective meaning-making of the 3Rs, and executive facilitation, encompassing politico-institutional conditions that support their implementation. The present paper focusses on the latter domain, in which key themes include political support fostering a pro-3R research environment, the cultivation of a 3R culture within research institutions, clearer 3R guidance from cantonal commissions on animal experimentation, and strategic use of the Swiss 3R Competence Centre as a leading national 3R intermediary. These themes detail major institutional stakeholders that could further promote the implementation of the 3Rs from the perspective of researchers. Accordingly, the results showed that advancing the 3Rs is not just a matter of niche innovations but should also be orchestrated from a broader institutional perspective and with specific objectives to achieve. While these findings are specific to the Swiss context, they provide valuable information for countries with similar regulations on animal experimentation or a similar political structure.
