INTRODUCTION:Male fertility is declining, and synthetic chemicals are a major candidate for causing it. This study investigated the effect of oral consumption of perfluorooctanoic acid on sperm quality and in vitro fertilization and the therapeutic role of alpha-lipoic acid in improving its possible effects. METHODS:Twenty adults male NMRI mice weighing 24-20 g were used. The male mice were divided into four groups. The control group received no drug. The sham group received only DMSO. The model group received PFOA (10 mg/kg), and the treatment group received PFOA (10 mg/kg) and ALA (dissolved in distilled water, 100 mg /kg). After the treatment period, blood, sperm and testicular tissue samples were collected from male mice. Serum testosterone level, testicular weight and histology, sperm analysis and sperm DFI were assayed. Then, using the IVF technique, fertilization rates at the 2PN, two-cell and cleavage stages were recorded. RESULTS:Exposure of male mice to PFOA significantly reduced sperm parameters (concentration, motility, morphology, viability), testicular weight, testosterone levels, IVF rates at the 2PN, two-cell and cleavage stages and increased sperm DFI. Simultaneous administration of ALA significantly reduced these adverse effects. P < 0.05 was considered significant. CONCLUSIONS:Our findings showed that ALA can improve the harmful effects of PFOA on sperm and fertilization rate. Therefore, the use of ALA to improve IVF outcomes deserves further attention. Given the persistent presence of PFOA in the environment and its associative (not causal) link with reduced sperm quality, further research and larger studies in this area seem necessary.
We evaluated the efficiency of two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) systems for in vitro culture of preantral follicles from the bovine species. Ovarian cortex fragments were obtained from a local slaughterhouse and randomly distributed into four groups: i) standard culture, directly on a culture plate (2D), ii) supported culture, on a gel monolayer (2D), iii) immersed culture on agarose gel (plating coated) covered in a medium (3D) and iv) Millicell-Biopore culture (3D), tested at 6 or 14 days. The following parameters were evaluated: follicular morphology and morphometry, reactive oxygen species production and granulosa cell proliferation. After 6 days of culture, follicles cultured on a gel monolayer (2D) showed a higher proportion of intact follicles than those cultured using other methods (P < 0.05). After 14 days of growth, standard culture on a culture plate (2D) and supported culture on a gel monolayer (2D) had a higher percentage of morphologically intact follicles (P < 0.05) than the 3D culture. An assessment of the redox status revealed that superoxide anion levels and antioxidant capacity of the samples cultured using the four methods were lower than those of the control group (non-cultured; P < 0.05). Taken together, these findings suggest that the agarose gel support system offers distinct advantages for bovine preantral follicle culture by maintaining morphological integrity and stabilising the redox environment, although further studies incorporating functional endpoints are warranted to fully confirm these observations.
This study aimed to investigate the involvement of the Wnt signalling pathway in the pathogenesis of non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA) and to identify potential diagnostic and therapeutic targets. We obtained the gene expression profiles of NOA patients from the GEO database, screened for differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and NOA-associated co-expressing gene modules, then intersected the DEGs with related genes in the Wnt signalling pathway and identified key genes. LASSO regression analysis was used to find hub genes, and qRT-PCR and WB methods were used to verify the expression of key genes in NOA patients. The immune infiltration and GSEA were conducted in order to investigate the relationship between hub genes and immune cells infiltration and NOA-associated pathways; furthermore, we built the miRNA-mRNA-TF regulatory network and predicted possible small molecules drug targets of the hub gene. Four candidate genes were related to NOA: CSNK1G2, GNG3, H2AFB1 and PARD6A. The key hub gene was CSNK1G2 based on the results of the LASSO regression analysis, and its expression level was significantly down-regulated in NOA patients. The immune infiltration analysis and GSEA results showed that the expression level of CSNK1G2 had a close relationship with immune cells infiltration and NOA-related pathways. Furthermore, we built a miRNA-mRNA-TF regulatory network and predicted the possible small molecule drugs of CSNK1G2. Our findings suggest that the Wnt signalling pathway, particularly CSNK1G2, plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of NOA. CSNK1G2 may be a novel target for the diagnosis and treatment of NOA.
Sperm capacitation involves biochemical and functional changes necessary for fertilization. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) regulates protein turnover, but the roles of proteasomal receptors during capacitation remain unclear. This study investigates the regulation and functional impact of proteasomal subunits RPN13 (ADRM1) and RPN2 (PSMD1) during in vitro capacitation of boar sperm. Semen samples (n = 6) were assigned to four groups: non-capacitating control (Non-Cap, 4 h in medium lacking bovine serum albumin (BSA)), capacitating control (Cap, 4 h with BSA) and groups treated with vehicle (CM + dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)) or the RPN13 inhibitor RA190. We measured RPN2/RPN13 levels, RPN13-associated ubiquitin signal and RPN13-RPN2 interactions (Western blot, Co-IP) and assessed sperm kinematics, intracellular Ca2+, protein tyrosine phosphorylation (pTyr), mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), ATP, ZP binding and early embryo cleavage after IVF. The Cap group showed successful capacitation, confirmed by increases in pTyr, sperm hyperactivation and Ca2+-associated Fluo-4 fluorescence. During capacitation, RPN2 and RPN13 abundance decreased, while RPN2-RPN13 association increased. RA190 treatment increased RPN13 levels, inhibited RPN13 turnover and decreased its interaction with RPN2 and the associated ubiquitin signal. Functionally, RA190 attenuated sperm hyperactivation, Ca2+-associated Fluo-4 fluorescence, protein tyrosine phosphorylation, mitochondrial membrane potential and ATP levels and was associated with reduced fertilization-related outcomes, including ZP binding and early embryo cleavage after IVF. These findings highlight the role of RPN13 in sperm capacitation and fertilization.
Dynamic systems for in vitro embryo production (IVEP) have long been sought to allow a higher resemblance to the physiological conditions of the oviduct and uterus. Although significant progress has been demonstrated in the microfluidic field, some challenges are still present regarding the microfluidic devices' sterilization protocol. This complication is related to the leached components from the poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS). The PDMS is one of the safest materials used in soft lithography for embryo production. However, the use of moulds required for soft lithography can compromise embryo culture. This limitation arises from the restricted range of biocompatible resins available for 3D-printing of moulds. While the replacement of the biomaterial for mould production is not a straightforward option, we hypothesized that PDMS devices fabricated from such moulds could be rendered biocompatible through an optimized cleaning protocol. In this current study, we evaluated the effectiveness of sequential washes, sonication, and extended incubation in washing solutions. Our results demonstrate that a prior incubation of the PDMS devices in PBS supplemented with antibiotics and antifungal (at 4°C for 48 hours), in addition to the incubation in IVC medium (at 38.5°C for 48 hours), enables bovine embryo development within PDMS devices fabricated with moulds from a 3D printer. This optimized protocol supported IVEP at rates equivalent to standard conditions, with no increase in apoptosis or oxidative stress, validating its suitability for artificial reproductive techniques applications.
Naproxen is a widely used nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, and previous studies have shown that its administration in mice influenced antral follicle growth and ovulation. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the reversibility of these effects following treatment interruption and to evaluate their impact across different mouse backgrounds. For Experiment I, C57BL/6 females (n = 20, 6 weeks of age) were treated with 10 mg/kg (low, n = 7) or 50 mg/kg (high, n = 7) of naproxen, while animals of the vehicle group received PBS + DMSO 5% (n = 6), followed by 21 days of rest. After euthanasia, the ovaries were histologically analysed. For Experiment II (C57BL/6) and Experiment III (Swiss and BALB/c), animals were treated for eight days with the same protocol, receiving 20 IU of eCG and 20 IU of hCG for ovulation induction. Recovered oocytes were collected and quantified. Results demonstrated that the treatment affected the percentage of primary follicles, which increased in the high-dose group compared with the vehicle group. Additionally, the rate of antral follicles was higher in the high group than in the vehicle and low-dose groups. The number of ovulated oocytes was not altered in BALB/c and Swiss females, as well as the number of corpora haemorrhagica and corpus luteum (p > 0.05). Overall, our findings indicate that naproxen treatment may have transient effects on folliculogenesis in C57BL/6 mice, with no impact in BALB/c or Swiss mice.
Currently, the research on the key factors which affect clinical and non-clinical pregnancy in high-quality single blastocyst transfer cycles remains relatively limited. This is particularly true for FET cycles, where the relationship between the transfer of high-quality single blastocysts and pregnancy outcomes has not been fully explored. This study aimed to identify key factors influencing clinical pregnancy outcomes in high-quality single blastocyst frozen-thawed transfer cycles to optimize assisted reproductive technology (ART). Patients under 38 years old who underwent high-quality single blastocyst frozen-thawed embryo transfer were included. Based on clinical pregnancy outcomes, they were divided into clinical pregnancy (Group A) and non-clinical pregnancy (Group B) groups. Key influencing factors were analyzed to guide the selection of blastocysts with the highest pregnancy potential.The result showed that Group B showed significantly higher age and infertility duration, but lower AMH levels, antral follicle count, and endometrial thickness on the day of transfer compared to Group A (P < 0.01). Infertility type also differed significantly (P < 0.01). Blastocyst grading differed between groups (P < 0.01), while E2, LH, P levels, embryo age, and D3 cleavage-stage cell count showed no significant differences (P > 0.05). Multivariate analysis revealed that infertility type, age, infertility duration, and endometrial thickness significantly impacted clinical pregnancy outcomes (P< 0.05), while AMH, antral follicle count, and blastocyst grading had no significant effect. All in all, clinical pregnancy outcomes are significantly influenced by age, infertility type, infertility duration, and endometrial thickness. Early treatment, optimized endometrial conditions, and selecting high-quality blastocysts are recommended to improve pregnancy rates.
Women with diabetes frequently experience ovarian dysfunction, which is a significant indication that diabetes adversely affects their reproductive health. This study investigates the efficacy of combined treatment with Pioglitazone and Cynara scolymus extract in improving ovarian function in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. A total of 35 female rats were divided into five groups: (1) Control (saline), (2) DM (diabetic control), (3) DM + Piog (30 mg/kg Pioglitazone), (4) DM + Cynara (400 mg/kg C. scolymus extract), and (5) DM + Piog + Cynara (combined treatment), and were administered orally for 30 consecutive days. Following treatment, histopathological and stereological analyses were performed to evaluate follicular development, corpus luteum volume, and oxidative stress markers. The results indicated that the combined treatment (DM + Piog + Cynara) led to significant improvements, including increased numbers of preantral, antral, and Graafian follicles, alongside an enhanced corpus luteum volume. Additionally, there was a notable reduction in atretic follicles and fasting blood glucose levels compared to the diabetic group. Diabetes resulted in elevated malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and decreased antioxidant enzyme activities. However, the combination therapy effectively modulated apoptotic pathways, enhancing Bcl-2 expression while reducing Caspase-9 activity. This study demonstrates that the combined therapy of C. scolymus extract and Pioglitazone mitigates diabetic-induced ovarian dysfunction by reducing oxidative stress, normalizing hormonal levels, and promoting healthy folliculogenesis. These findings suggest that this approach may serve as a promising complementary treatment for diabetes-related reproductive issues, potentially improving reproductive health.
The role of Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) on human gametogenesis and embryonic development has been investigated in clinical setting. PVP is routinely used in sperm handling during intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) procedure. However, the controversies about its harmful effects on embryonic cells has been debated in recent years. Some reported that PVP decreases the membrane integrity and chromatin stability and strongly affects the fine structure of spermatozoa, such as axonemal tubules, fibrous sheath, and accessory fibres. However, others claimed that PVP delayed the onset of calcium oscillations in the oocyte in ICSI setting. Therefore, PVP affects the decondensation of male pronuclear formation after sperm injection. Also, it has been reported that after injection of conventional 10%PVP to embryos, PVP solution remained in the embryos and suppressed development of these embryos. Recent studies indicated that with a decrease in PVP concentration, embryo development increased and morphokinetics improved in ICSI cycles. Also, low concentration of PVP decreased the rate of apoptosis when compared to 10%PVP. In this review, the irreversible effects of PVP on sperm and embryonic chromosomal aberrant were reported. In conclusion, it is recommended to use the low concentration of PVP in conventional ICSI programme to limit its damage on fertilization processes as well as embryo development.
The objective of this study was to characterize macroscopically the female gametes, evaluate the survival rates, as well as describe in detail the embryonic development of Prosomyleus rhomboidalis. Three adult females from the Xingu River, presenting promptly ovulation were fertilized by the dry method using sperm from adult males. Egg incubation was set at 27.5°C, and oocyte characteristics and the main developmental stages were described. The results showed that the non-hydrated oocyte has an average diameter of 2.12 mm, yellow colour, spherical shape, is non-adhesive and the diameter increased after hydration at 0.36 mm, referring to the perivitelline space(PS). The fertilization rates (96.79 ± 9.52%) and hatching of normal larvae (96.21 ± 2.40%) were analysed, with hatching above 96%. After hydration of the eggs the PS arose and formed a visible animal pole ending with the hatching of the larvae 69 h and 39 min after fertilization. The description of developmental stages following fertilization was described for the first time in this species. The information presented in this work will serve as a basic support for new possibilities in conservation strategies, re-stocking and genebanking.
Spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) constitute the foundation of male sperm production and fertility. SSCs are characterised by their capacity for self-renewal and differentiation into spermatozoa throughout a male's reproductive life, thereby transmitting genetic information to subsequent generations. During embryonic development, SSCs are derived from postnatal testicular gonocytes, which originate from long-lived primordial germ cells. A large proportion of men's infertility is detected by sperm analysis. Unusual sperm parameters include sperm concentration, morphology and motility. Male infertility is mainly due to hormone deficits, physical causes, sexually transmitted diseases, environment, lifestyle and hereditary factors. The most severe form of male infertility is non-obstructive azoospermia (NOA), which is defined as no sperm in the ejaculate because of spermatogenesis failure. The first-line treatment for these individuals has been testicular sperm extraction under an operating microscope (micro-TESE). SSCs are also considered a promising pathway for regenerating impaired or damaged spermatogenesis. This review addresses SSC transplantation as a potential method for treating male infertility and restoring spermatogenesis in patients with degenerative diseases such as cancer, radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
Easy, universal, and cost-effective methods of gamete preservation for echinoids are required since echinoids are important model organisms for studying fertilization and early development, and at the same time, they are valuable fishery resources, and key components of marine ecosystems. In general, cryopreservation is the common method of animal sperm preservation, but we previously reported a simple method using a chilled condition as an alternative choice, using Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus. In this study, we applied this method to various echinoid species to test whether it was effective for them, and then we determined the features of the preserved sperm in detail. The fertilization capability of preserved sperm was maintained for several weeks, though higher sperm density was needed to obtain 100% fertilization in later periods. Eggs fertilized by the preserved sperm developed normally, and the morphology of the embryos was not affected. Sperm swimming in a stable, regular manner were observed even at the end of the preservation period, though the flagellar beat frequency was substantially decreased during preservation. There was almost no change of the flagellar beat form during preservation. Here, we showed that our simple method is basically applicable to various echinoid species and provides the opportunity for effective and immediate use of competent echinoid sperm by a wide variety of users, such as people in research, fisheries and education.
Long-term trophectoderm (TE) cell culture provides a powerful model to investigate placenta-specific factors to better understand mechanisms relevant to pregnancy establishment and placental development. However, current TE culture systems rely on costly commercial media and extracellular matrix (ECM) components, which limit their scalability and accessibility. This study evaluated cost-effective alternatives to established conditions by testing modified DMEM/F-12 and a biphasic TE culture system as substitutes for commercial Advanced DMEM/F-12 and for continuous TE culture, and by assessing 0.1% gelatine as an ECM alternative to collagen IV. Trophectoderm outgrowths cultured on collagen IV or gelatine did not differ in attachment timing (P = 0.78) or in expression of placental and differentiation markers PLAC8 (P = 0.78), GATA2 (P = 0.18), and PAG10 (P = 0.39). Similarly, blastocysts cultured in commercial Advanced DMEM/F-12 or base DMEM/F-12 exhibited no differences in attachment day (P = 0.98), TE growth area from days 10-20 (P > 0.05), or expression of PLAC8 (P = 0.35) and PAG10 (P = 0.08), although PAG7 differed between treatments (P < 0.05). Embryos cultured in continuous TE attached later (P = 0.01) than those cultured in TE media, but no differences were observed in TE growth area or expression of PLAC8, PAG7, or PAG10 (P > 0.05). Collectively, these results indicate that affordable media formulations and gelatine-coated cultureware support TE attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. This cost-effective culture framework enables broader application of TE models and supports extended studies of trophoblast function, placental signalling, and early conceptus development.
Oocyte maturation is regulated by well-orchestrated molecular mechanisms and any abnormalities during these events could result in an oocyte that cannot be fertilized or develop into normal embryos. Recently, MOS gene variants were reported to result in oocytes with large polar body (PB) or early embryonic arrest in humans leading to infertility. A thirty-year-old woman with 12 years of infertility underwent two in vitro fertilization cycles, and in both she had oocytes with large PBs and parthenogenetic activation. Clinical exome sequence was performed and revealed a novel homozygous variant in MOS (NM_005372.1):c.573C > A;p.(Phe191Leu). These findings might indicate that MOS mutation results in oocytes with a large PB and parthenogenesis in this patient. In conclusion, our data further confirms that MOS is important in proper oocyte maturation, and variant c 573 C > A results in the formation of a large PB and parthenogenetic activation as reported in animal models earlier. Patients with MOS variants need to be counselled about their fertility status.
The piracanjuba (Brycon orbignyanus) is a species threatened with extinction due to human activities, highlighting the need for genebanking and alternative propagation methods for its conservation. The objective of this study was to obtain a completely sterile yellowtail tetra (Astyanax altiparanae) and to transplant the stem spermatogonia (SSCs) of B. orbignyanus. Complete depletion of spermatogenesis in adult diploid males was successfully achieved through five applications of busulfan, using dosages of 15 mg kg-1 and 40 mg kg-1 at a high temperature of 35°C. One month after completing the busulfan treatment, spermatogenesis returned, occurring more rapidly in the 15 mg kg-1 treatment, with spermatozoa visible in the testicular lumen. In the treatment with 40 mg kg-1, only SSCs and some spermatid cysts were observed. Depletion of spermatogenesis in triploid juveniles was observed after two applications of busulfan (50 mg kg-1). One month after the end of the treatment, only a few SSCs cells were observed in the testes. The B. orbignyanus SSCs were isolated using a Percoll density gradient and identified by alkaline phosphatase activity, resulting in a cell suspension of 2.6 × 106 SSCs/mL with 93% cell viability. The cells were labeled with PKH26 and transplanted via the urogenital papilla into recipients (triploid juvenile males) previously treated with busulfan. PKH26-positive cells were visualized up to 80 days after transplantation. The combination of two sterilization methods appears to be more effective for cell transplantation after the endogenous germ cells have been eliminated from the recipient testes of triploid juveniles.
This study investigated how hormonal induction, female presence, and production system affect sperm quality in Astyanax lacustris across three experiments. In Experiment 1, males and females were kept together in the same recirculating aquaculture system (RAS) before testing. Hormonal induction consistently boosted initial motility and prolonged sperm activity, while female presence offered only a modest benefit to non-induced males and no measurable effect when males were induced. Sperm concentration remained similar across treatments. Experiment 2 evaluated the same factors using broodstock originating from different rearing environments. When males and females came from separate RAS units, hormonal induction again sustained higher motility, and induced males paired with females showed higher sperm concentration than some non-induced groups. In the RAS-biofloc technology (BFT) pairing, hormonal induction maintained motility regardless of female presence; however, in the absence of hormonal induction, both sperm motility and concentration were modulated by the rearing system of females, with non-induced males paired with BFT females exhibiting lower reproductive performance. Overall, hormonal induction proved to be the most reliable strategy for ensuring high semen quality in A. lacustris. Nonetheless, when induction was not applied, male reproductive performance became more sensitive to female origin and rearing environment, highlighting the importance of broodstock compatibility and production system history in reproductive management protocols.
Recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL) is a clinically important condition in women undergoing assisted reproductive technologies (ART). This study evaluated embryo morphology and morphokinetic parameters using time-lapse monitoring (TLM) and assessed embryo ploidy by preimplantation genetic testing for aneuploidy (PGT-A) in women with RPL compared with unexplained infertility (UEI) controls. A total of 190 patients (100 RPL, 90 UEI) and 1169 embryos (634 RPL, 535 UEI) cultured under TLM were analyzed. Clinical characteristics, embryo morphology, morphokinetics and ploidy status were compared between groups, and logistic regression was used to identify predictors of aneuploidy. The euploidy rate was significantly lower in the RPL group than in controls (43.5% vs. 52.3%, p = 0.018). Group-wise analysis of all embryos revealed differences in selected morphokinetic parameters (t9 and tSC; p < 0.05). However, morphokinetic timing of euploid embryos did not differ between groups, suggesting that accelerated development alone was not associated with chromosomal abnormality. Embryo morphology was the strongest predictor of aneuploidy in both cohorts. Notably, direct uneven cleavage was associated with a 3.4-fold increased risk of aneuploidy specifically in the RPL group. Although embryos from RPL patients showed relatively faster developmental kinetics, morphokinetic speed alone did not predict chromosomal competence. Instead, embryo quality remained the key determinant of aneuploidy, while the association between direct cleavage and aneuploidy highlights the potential clinical value of TLM when combined with PGT-A. These findings support a complementary role for TLM in embryo assessment in RPL patients.
This study investigated the expression profile of the Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) gene in goats across three reproductive groups - twin-bearing (n = 12), single-bearing (n = 10) and non-pregnant (n = 8) - using quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR). Descriptive statistics revealed that twin-bearing goats were significantly heavier at service and kidding, with higher litter weights compared to other groups (p < 0.05). No breed-wise differences were observed, allowing pooled analysis for gene expression. Melt curve and amplification plot analyses confirmed primer specificity and efficient amplification. TLR2 expression was significantly upregulated in twin-bearing goats (ΔCt = -2.14 ± 0.89), with a mean 4.5-fold increase (p < 0.001) compared to non-pregnant controls, suggesting enhanced immune activation. Single-bearing goats showed negligible and non-significant changes in expression (ΔCt = -0.01 ± 1.45; p = 0.984). Statistical comparisons showed a significant difference in TLR2 expression between twin- and single-bearing groups (mean difference: 3.39; p < 0.001). These results reveals a significant association of twin pregnancies with elevated expression level of TLR2 gene in resource population. While the functional implications require further investigation, this upregulation may be associated with immune adaptations to increased gestational load. Overall, this study identifies TLR2 as a candidate gene expression marker strongly correlated with twin pregnancy in goats. Further validation through longitudinal studies on larger cohorts and investigation of tissue-specific expression is necessary to assess its potential predictive value for reproductive performance in small ruminants.
This study aimed to evaluate the effects of linseed supplementation on the in vitro production of embryos subjected to vitrification. Pantaneira cows supplemented with linseed or not (control) were evaluated. The best-quality embryos produced in vitro from both groups were vitrified. Oocyte quality and blastocyst rate did not differ between the groups. However, the rates of vitrifiable embryos and re-expansion at 3 h were higher in the linseed-supplemented group. In conclusion, linseed supplementation in Pantaneira cows improved the quality of embryos produced in vitro.
Infertility aetiology has been shown to be related to reproductive outcomes in the wide reproductive age range. The aim of this study was to examine young women in vitro fertilization (IVF) cycle outcomes according to age and infertility cause. This retrospective cohort study was comprised of 305 couples with a female partner aged 17-25 years with either male or female infertility that underwent a fresh IVF cycle between 2003 and 2020. Comparison according to age groups 17-22 years (n = 117) and 23-25 years (n = 188) showed similar outcomes, except for higher rates of 3 pronuclei (PN) embryos in the younger group. However, allocation to groups by infertility aetiology - male factor (MF) (n = 241) vs. female factor (FF) (n = 64) demonstrated lower fertilization rate in the FF vs. MF group (58% vs. 63%, p = 0.049) and higher percent of 1PN and 3PN embryos (0.7% vs. 0.2% and 0.7% vs. 0.1%, p < 0.001 for both). Chemical pregnancy and live-birth rate were significantly higher in the MF vs. FF group (48.9% vs. 29.5%, p = 0.02 and 41.9% vs. 11.0%, p = 0.038). The only parameter associated with live birth rate in a logistic regression analysis was male infertility aetiology (OR = 2.17, p = 0.038). Young couples undergoing IVF cycles due to female factor infertility have poorer reproductive outcomes compared to male factor-related infertility and higher rates of 1PN and 3PN embryos.
