INTRODUCTION Atherosclerosis(AS) remains a leading cause of global cardiovascular mortality due to the formation of lipid rich plaques and chronic vascular inflammation. Conventional therapies, including statins, antiplatelet agents and surgical interventions, primarily control risk factors by preventing new plaque deposits but show limited ability to selectively target inflamed vascular sites. OBJECTIVE This review critically evaluates current advances in nanoparticle mediated drug delivery for atherosclerosis, with emphasis on mechanistic targeting of inflamed plaques, modulation of macrophage driven inflammatory and oxidative pathways within the diseased vascular microenvironment. This review also highlights comparative analysis of major nanoparticle systems, integration of theranostic functionalities for simultaneous molecular imaging and therapy. The translational barriers are also addressed to enable clinical implementation.Significance of Review: Despite advancements in lipid-lowering and anti-inflammatory drugs, current atherosclerosis treatments are limited by inadequate plaque specificity, rapid systemic clearance, off-target toxicity, and persistent cardiovascular risk. Nanoparticle based systems can solve these problems with simultaneous diagnosis and therapy, thereby addressing major unmet clinical needs.Key Findings: Different types of nanoparticles demonstrate promising therapeutic outcomes by modulating macrophage activity, reducing oxidative stress, enabling controlled drug release and improving plaque imaging. Theranostic nanoparticles further allow simultaneous diagnosis and treatment. However, large-scale manufacturing, nanotoxicology and regulatory constraints continue to hinder clinical translation. CONCLUSIONS Nanoparticle-mediated therapies represent a transformative approach for atherosclerosis by enabling precision, targeted and multifunctional treatment. Continued optimization of safety, scalability and regulatory compliance will be essential for successful clinical adoption and improved patient outcomes.
OBJECTIVE To design, optimize, and evaluate efinaconazole-loaded liposomal formulation with sustained drug release, enhanced trans-ungual drug penetration, and improved drug retention for treatment of onychomycosis. SIGNIFICANCE Conventional topical therapies for onychomycosis are limited by poor nail permeability and low drug retention. The optimized liposomal nanocarrier system enhances trans-ungual drug penetration with sustains release kinetics showing potential for effective drug delivery and patient compliance. METHODS Liposomes encapsulating efinaconazole were synthesized via the ethanol injection technique. A Box-Behnken design was employed for optimization using Design Expert® software. The independent variables included phospholipid (HSPC), cholesterol, and stirring speed, while dependent variables were particle size, PDI, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency, and cumulative drug release. The optimized liposomes underwent comprehensive characterization including in vitro drug release, TEM, DSC, release kinetics, ex vivo nail permeation, and physical stability. RESULTS The optimized formulation prepared with HSPC:cholesterol (4.83:1 w/w ratio) exhibited particle size of 190 nm, PDI of 0.187, zeta potential of -28.20 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 47.80%. It showed sustained release profile with 75.41% cumulative drug release at 12 h following Korsmeyer-Peppas kinetic model. TEM analysis confirmed spherical, nanosized, unilamellar vesicles, and the DSC indicated successful drug encapsulation. The ex vivo drug permeation across human nail plate showed approximately 1.7-fold higher permeation of liposomal formulation compared to pure drug solution. CONCLUSION The optimized liposomal formulation closely matched the software-predicted values and demonstrated enhanced trans-ungual drug penetration, sustained drug release, and satisfactory physical stability, indicating its promising prospects as transungual drug delivery system.
