There is an increased interest among dairy farmers in management systems allowing cow–calf contact (CCC). This study evaluated maternal protective behaviour in dairy cows using Qualitative Behaviour Assessment (QBA) in combination with categorical behavioural scoring systems, selected objective recordings from the automatic milking system (AMS) and computer-controlled smart gates (SG). Maternal protective behaviour was assessed during the first 48hours after birth by observation of 23 cow-calf pairs in the calving pen (“undisturbed”) and when the cow was restrained in the headlock in the maternity pen for milking while the calf was handled (“restrained”). Data on individual cow teat cup kick-offs (KO), somatic cell counts (SCC) and frequency of cow visits to the calf through SG were registered when the animals were housed in the CCC system. QBA was analysed using principal component analysis (PCA), revealing two main components, labelled mood (PC1) and alertness (PC2), which can be recognised from QBA studies of cattle and other species. A significant, positive association between QBA PC1 “undisturbed” and “restrained” was found, indicating that the cows’ behaviour when undisturbed may partly predict their behaviour when being milked. There was little variation in the categorical maternal protective behaviour scores. All cows except one were scored as exhibiting maternal behaviours labelled as “interested” (licking, vocalizations, shifting of the body position to facilitate suckling, nose-calf-contact) when the cow and calf were “undisturbed”, while most cows (74%) were scored to stand quietly and being attentive to their calf when “restrained”. All cows used the SG to access their calf and the frequencies of the visits varied greatly among cow-calf pairs. We ran regression models to investigate the associations between QBA and SCC, KO and SG passages. No associations were found between QBA scores and these variables, and there were no interrelationships between the selected recordings. The lack of significant associations might be due to a limited sample size, as only 23 cow-calf pairs were included in the study. Nevertheless, QBA may give important, supplemental information about maternal protective behaviour in cattle, but the method needs further validation.
Behavioural data is often collected using direct observations, requiring dedicated labour commitments from observers. Technology provides opportunities to more efficiently monitor behaviour and, consequently, welfare, but external validation of technology-assisted solutions is essential. This project investigated whether filtering positioning data from a real-time location system (RTLS) by distance could identify active affiliative behaviours (i.e., allogrooming and near-udder events) within dam-calf pairs with the purpose of more efficiently collecting behavioural data. Pairs (n = 10) were fitted with ultrawide-band RTLS ear tags in a cow-calf contact system with full, unrestricted contact. Active affiliative behaviours were observed from video footage on 4 consecutive days from 06:00–12:00h. Positioning data for these observation periods were interpolated to calculate Euclidean distances (sensor-to-sensor) within dam-calf pairs on a per-second basis. The data was filtered for distance thresholds of 0.5–3m, with 0.25m increments, and aggregated into close contact bouts when the given distance was exceeded for ≥60s. For each distance, behavioural observations and RTLS close contacts were compared per second, and a 2×2 contingency table was used to calculate performance metrics. The results of the study demonstrated that positioning data alone could not isolate active affiliative behaviours. However, in this study, 2m was the optimal distance to capture intervals where active affiliative behaviours were occurring, with an average sensitivity and specificity of 99.5 ± 0.85% (SD) and 86.6 ± 7.90%, respectively, across pairs. The positive predictive value (PPV) was 24.8 ± 13.47%. Although greater distances (2.25–3m) were able to identify instances of active affiliative behaviours with average sensitivities of at least 99.9%, the specificity and PPV decreased as distance increased. Meanwhile, the average PPV at distances between 0.5–1.75m only improved marginally (33.6–26.4%) while sensitivity was compromised (23.2–94.5%). Post-hoc video observations revealed that outside of active affiliative behaviours, time in close contact (i.e., a distance threshold of 2m) was primarily spent with the calf resting and dam standing or resting nearby. These results indicate that RTLS positioning data may be useful in exploring socio-spatial relationships between cows and calves, as this proximity detection approach holds value as a screening tool for capturing dyadic associations encompassing affiliative behaviours. However, without refinement of the method, behaviour specification will require direct observation or complimentary use of other technologies.
Pair housing benefits dairy calves; however, little is known about how housing type and the age at pairing influence the expression of positive and negative behaviours. The aim of this study was to compare the behavioural dynamics of behaviours categorized as positive, maintenance or negative and to evaluate the total frequency of each behaviour across the pre-weaning period in calves pair-housed at 1 week of age, pair-housed at 4 weeks of age, or housed individually. Holstein female calves (n = 140) were assigned to one of three treatments: paired at 1 week (paired at 6–7 d; n = 48), paired at 4 weeks (paired at 29–30 d; n = 48), or individually housed (n = 44). Behavioural observations were conducted for 30minutes after milk feeding (twice per day) from day 6 to day 50 using scan sampling. We used linear mixed-effects models to assess the effects of housing, age, and health status (diarrhoea and BRD) on calf behaviour. Calves paired at 1 week displayed the most positive behavioural outcomes, showing higher expression of exploratory behaviour, play, and allogrooming, as well as lower expression of idleness, stereotypic behaviour, bedding intake, and non-nutritive oral behaviours compared with both calves paired at 4 weeks and individually housed calves. Pair housing at 1 week enhanced the expression of positive behaviours while reducing negative behaviours in pre-weaned dairy calves. Although pairing at 4 weeks led to some positive behaviour expression compared with individual housing, it was still insufficient to match the levels observed when calves were paired at 1 week of age. These findings highlight the importance of not only providing social housing but also initiating pair housing early, as both the timing and the social context significantly shape calves’ behavioural trajectories and their ability to express positive welfare states.
Impaired feedlot cattle are often housed in hospital or chronic pens for additional monitoring and care. Monitoring impairment status is vital to evaluate treatment response and inform timely euthanasia decisions. The objective of this study was to explore associations between health status and cattle responses during a rope behavior test to inform impaired cattle welfare. It was hypothesized that impaired cattle would perform fewer rope interactions than healthy cattle. A cotton rope was hung in feedlot pens for three 30-min sessions over six non-consecutive summer days at two feedlots with different management and cattle characteristics. At Feedlot 1, ten pens of low-risk steers were enrolled: three impaired pens (two hospital pens [n = 4 cattle] tested on two and three days and one repeat chronic pen [n = 8 cattle] tested on all six days), one repeat healthy pen (n = 170 cattle) tested on all six days, and six novel healthy pens (n = 795 cattle) each tested on one day. Sessions occurred in the early morning, afternoon, and evening. At Feedlot 2, two pens of high-risk heifers were enrolled: one repeat chronic pen (n = 24 cattle) and one repeat healthy pen (n = 150 cattle), both tested on all six days. Sessions occurred in the early morning, late morning, and afternoon. The number of individual rope-directed interactions (RDIs) by cattle in the pens were recorded with direct continuous observation. After controlling for pen size, associations between pen health status (healthy, impaired) on first-session RDIs and associations between health status, time of day, and RDIs over all sessions were evaluated using generalized linear mixed models. Healthy cattle pens had more RDIs than impaired cattle pens (p < 0.001). More pen-level RDIs occurred during early morning and evening than late morning and afternoon sessions (p = 0.004). Individual cattle RDIs are presented descriptively. Rope location and rope novelty impacted RDIs, although impacts varied between healthy and impaired populations. Median RDIs were similar between impaired and healthy cattle with at least one RDI, although the maximum was lower in impaired cattle. A greater percentage of lame cattle had RDIs compared to cattle with respiratory disease. Three cattle died during the study period, and none had RDIs. It is an important finding that some impaired cattle interacted with the rope, although at much lower levels than healthy cattle. The rope behavior test may provide information on impaired cattle welfare, particularly for cattle with no rope interest that may be approaching mortality, or for cattle with higher/more persistent RDIs that may be recovering.
Laying hens may shift their space-use and movement when confronted with a new social environment or after being caught and handled, however, these effects are not well documented in hens in large groups. To disentangle such effects, hens need to be relocated within large groups. Assessing the effect of relocation in large groups can be challenging as hens in flocks over 100 individuals are believed to shift their social strategy to one of “social tolerance” where aggression decreases due to an individuals reduced ability to accurately recognize large numbers of conspecifics or hens not having enough repeated interactions with the same individual to assess dominance. However, recent evidence using temporal-spatial co-occurrence suggests that hens do create associations and that associations can strengthen over time. Within large aviary systems, familiarity between individuals may increase when they repeatedly occupy the same areas at the same times, creating opportunities for associations to form. If such associations reflect social preference or, we expect movement and space-use behaviors to shift when individuals are relocated to a new social environment as individuals adjust to unfamiliar conspecifics, through potential aggression, and integration into new social environment. Although a proxy for social grouping or associations, movement and space-use provide the best evidence of associations in large flocks. To test whether movement changes with relocation, we arbitrarily selected 21-22 focal hens from each of eight laying pens (225 hens/pen; n = 169 hens) housed in a quasi-commercial multi-tier aviary system. Each focal hen was outfitted with a low-frequency tracking tag to monitor location and movement within the pen. All focal hens experienced three days (hereafter referred to as ‘disturbance days’) that included catching, crating, and health assessment to quantify keel bone fracture severity as well as feather coverage and foot health. After the health assessment, half of the focal hens were relocated to a different pen while the other half remained in their original home pen. The same focal hens were relocated at each assessment. We compared percentage of time spent in the top tier, the nestbox tier, and the litter, as well as vertical movement among the tiers, and whether they entered a covered veranda. To assess whether hens changed their short-term location and space-use profile, we analyzed movement and location data seven days pre- and one to eight days post-relocation using a generalized linear mixed effect models. We found no main treatment effect of relocation on spatial or movement behaviors nor an interaction between treatment and pre- and post-movement suggesting that being placed in a new, identical pen with different conspecifics did not influence immediate spatial behaviors. We did find an initial effect of being picked up and handled on vertical travel distance, however this effect diminished by the third relocation suggesting habituation to the disturbance. We also found an effect on time spent in the top tier and litter after the last disturbance day. Overall, we found that relocation of hens within relatively large groups does not influence short-term location and space-use behaviors.
The pot-bellied seahorse (Hippocampus abdominalis) has emerged as a species of increasing importance for both commercial aquaculture and conservation programs. Effective broodstock management is crucial for enhancing reproductive performance in aquaculture, particularly the optimization of broodstock density. This study evaluated the effects of six kinds of pairing densities (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 pairs of broodstocks per tank) on the reproductive efficiency and behavior of H. abdominalis over a three-month period. Results revealed a significant positive effect of increased density on reproductive performance. Groups with six and seven pairs exhibited the highest reproductive efficiency and displayed the most frequent estrous behavior. However, this reproductive benefit was accompanied by a density-dependent rise in male-male competition, with the seven pairs group showing significantly more competitive display behavior than all other groups. Interestingly, broodstock stocking density had no significant effect on larval survival during the first month after birth. These findings highlight a key trade-off in broodstock management for H. abdominalis: while higher densities stimulate reproduction and improve reproductive efficiency, they also increase male-male competition, which may be a source of chronic stress. A stocking density of six pairs per tank under the tested conditions is recommended for commercial production under the tested conditions, given its superior overall performance in terms of reproductive efficiency and behavioral welfare indicators (as indicated by lower competitive display behavior compared to the seven pairs group). However, further studies are needed to confirm long-term welfare implications. Overall, this study offers empirical evidence to optimize hatchery protocols and promote the sustainable culture of H. abdominalis.
Cat ownership is increasing in Thailand, partly driven by its perceived psychological and social benefits. However, some of feline behaviors can strain the human–cat bond, increase the risk of abandonment, and compromise animal welfare. Despite the growing feline population, no nationwide study has systematically examined feline behaviors in Thailand. This study aimed to develop and conduct an initial psychometric assessment of the Feline Behavioral Evaluation Questionnaire (FBEQ) and to characterize structure and distribution of feline behavioral traits in pet cats. An online survey was conducted, yielding 2,925 eligible responses from cat owners across Thailand (75 provinces, 97.40%). The FBEQ comprised 78 items assessing feline behavioral characteristics. The questionnaire structure was evaluated using exploratory factor analysis with factor-retention guided by the Kaiser–Guttman criterion, Scree plot, and Horn’s parallel analysis to identify eight behavioral subscales. While internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s α = 0.715-0.925 and McDonald’s ω = 0.737-0.925. The eight subscales were: (1) attachment-related behavior, (2) aggression toward familiar pets, (3) aggression toward owners, (4) general fearfulness, (5) separation-related behaviors, (6) aggression toward strangers, (7) inappropriate elimination, and (8) grooming-induced fear and aggression. The retained factor solution identified several distinct behavioral domains within the questionnaire, indicating that cat owners reported feline behaviors, using a five-point Likert scale (0–4), were represented by multiple dimensions in this dataset. Attachment-related behavior showed the highest mean score (2.16±0.84), followed by general fearfulness (1.30±0.64), grooming-induced fear and aggression (1.24±1.02), aggression towards strangers (0.88±1.13), separation-related behaviors (0.65±0.62), aggression toward familiar pets (0.64±0.78), inappropriate elimination (0.62±0.93), and aggression toward owners (0.36±0.51). The FBEQ demonstrates psychometric characteristics and provides a reliable framework for behavioral screening questionnaires in companion cats.
The maintenance of songbirds in cages is a widespread practice, yet these environments often lack adequate stimuli, potentially compromising animal welfare. This study evaluated the behavioral responses of chestnut-bellied seed-finches (Sporophila angolensis) to several stimuli, including purple nutsedge seeds (Cyperus rotundus), yellow eggplant (Solanum aethiopicum), live mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor), conspecific and Southern Caracara (Caracara plancus) playbacks, a mirror, a bathing-water container, and a taxidermized Southern Ccaracara model.—to validate their valence for environmental enrichment protocols. Using an ABA (Baseline–Treatment–Baseline) experimental design (5min pre-exposure, 5-min exposure, and 5min post-exposure), birds were randomly exposed to each stimulus six times, totaling 12hours of observation per individual. Behavioral data were recorded and analyzed using Boris software through continuous focal animal sampling. Results indicated that Cyperus rotundus elicited the fastest approach responses, differing from all other stimuli (Holm-adjusted P < 0.001), and was associated with reduced somersaulting during stimulus exposure. Solanum aethiopicum also elicited relatively rapid approach and favorable behavioral responses. The mirror attracted substantial visual attention but was associated with freezing, reduced comfort, and increased displacement. Predator-related and conspecific stimuli generally elicited vigilance, avoidance, or reduced comfort responses. The bathing container produced limited interaction under the experimental conditions, whereas Tenebrio molitor larvae elicited the longest approach latencies and little physical interaction. Our findings indicate that Cyperus rotundus and Solanum aethiopicum elicited the most positive behavioral response profiles under the experimental conditions and may represent promising foraging-enrichment items for captive S. angolensis.
Inter-individual differences (personalities) influence how individuals perceive, react to, and interact with their environment, conspecifics, and threats. Understanding animal personality makes it possible to predict individual responses to particular situations or stimuli; creating opportunities to provide optimal environments for individual animals. If animal behaviour and welfare scientists are to ensure all animals live ‘a good life’ then attention must be paid to every individual within a group, something which has been historically lacking. There is an urgent need to recognise the role of individuality in positive animal welfare and to incorporate individual behavioural profiles into evidence-based management, which currently varies across animal disciplines. Personality influences the success of housing and management, the nature of human-animal interactions and animals’ affective states, and therefore should be more broadly considered and applied in animal management. Whilst in some species personality is widely assessed and incorporated into management, there is significant disparity across species, alongside practical challenges in implementation across sectors. This paper provides a narrative synthesis of literature on animal personality across the farm and zoo sectors, presenting selected examples to highlight key themes and developments. Across sectors, clear differences are identified in how personality is recognised and applied, with practical constraints limiting implementation at scale. The review outlines opportunities to integrate personality-informed approaches into management to improve welfare outcomes and culminates in recommendations to support the incorporation of animal individuality into management practices, taking into account industry-specific constraints. Finally, this review highlights the need for the development of practical tools to assess and apply personality in managed settings.
Accelerometers worn by beef calves can record activity, allowing researchers and producers to potentially monitor neonate health and behaviour. The objectives were to develop a machine learning algorithm that predicts behaviour using accelerometer data and compare pre-processing and model-level strategies for improving model performance. Fifteen newborn calves were fitted with a collar containing a 3D-accelerometer with a sampling rate of 1.0 Hz. Three cohorts of 5 cow-calf pairs were recorded with a camcorder 5 d/wk for the first two weeks of life between 0800–2000h. Observers recorded lying, standing, walking, and nursing behaviours using focal animal sampling, resulting in 644 hrs of observations. Observations were synced with the accelerometer data using the animal ID and timestamp, cleaned, and segmented into time-windows of 20 s. Data from 3 calves were separated as independent test sets. From the training set composed of the remaining 12 calves, 132 features were calculated. Fourteen classifiers were developed, including both hierarchical and non-hierarchical models, as well as variations that employed over- and/or under-sampling techniques to manage the imbalanced dataset. A Leave-One-Animal-Out cross-validation (LOAO) was conducted for each classifier that calculated the precision, sensitivity, and the Matthews Correlation Coefficient (MCC). These metrics were averaged across calves and a Friedman test identified differences between models which was followed by pairwise comparisons using a Nemenyi Test and Critical Difference plot visualizations. The final model with the highest predictive performance was then tested with 3 independent test sets of 1 animal each. The dataset was imbalanced because calves spent the majority of their time lying down. The Non-Hierarchical Model (NHM) with no pre-processing sampling techniques performed best overall at LOAO and was further tested in the test sets. Their MCC was 0.78 ± 0.05 in the LOAO and 0.77 ± 0.00 (mean±SD) in the test set. Precision and sensitivity for lying and standing were ≥ 0.79, and both were ≥ 0.65 for nursing for LOAO and the test sets. Walking had the lowest predictive performance (precision: LOAO = 0.26 ± 0.38; sensitivity: LOAO = 0.02 ± 0.04), and the NHM was unable to correctly classify walking in the test set. These preliminary results suggest that hierarchical model and pre-processing sampling techniques attempted could not compensate for the severity of imbalance in the dataset. The final classifier predicted lying, standing, and nursing behaviour reliably, but walking behaviour may not be developed enough in the first two weeks of life to consistently identify it at a sampling rate of 1.0 Hz.
Perching and roosting are highly motivated innate behaviours of laying hens that evolved as anti-predator responses in their wild jungle fowl ancestors, providing elevated, usually protective vantage points for the birds. Although current management guidelines require that perches be provided to pullets in non-cage systems within the first week of age, there are few recommendations and little research on specific perch characteristics (e.g., shape, size) for young birds compared to adult laying hens. This study aimed to assess the relative daytime perching and nighttime roosting preferences of growing pullets for round perches of varying diameters and spatial locations. Dekalb White (n = 75) and Bovans Brown (n = 75) layer chicks were housed in groups of 12 or 13 in 6 floor pens/strain (N = 12). Each pen had 3 round wooden perches of differing diameters: 1.91 cm (S), 2.54 cm (M), and 3.18 cm (L), all elevated 10.16 cm above the ground until 4 WOA, then moved to their final height of 82 cm above the ground. Perch locations were rotated weekly among three pen walls (A: wall closest to the room entrance, B: wall opposite pen door, C: wall furthest from the room entrance) to account for location bias. Video recordings of 48 h per week over four 3-week long periods from 2 to 13 WOA were scanned once per 15 min during lights on and once per hour during lights off to determine the percentages of birds on each perch (S, M, L), and at each location (A, B, C). Overall, elevated structure use increased with age during both the day and night (Daytime: P < 0.01, Nighttime: P < 0.01). While brown pullets used all perch diameters and locations similarly during the day, white pullets showed a consistent increase in use of M and L, but not S (P < 0.05), and of locations A and C, but not B, over time (P < 0.01). At night, no preference for perch diameter was observed (P = 0.20) but more pullets consistently preferred to roost at location B, facing the interior of the pen, compared with locations A or C (P < 0.01), regardless of age. These results suggest that while daytime perching in growing pullets is influenced by an interaction between perch diameter, strain and development, nighttime roosting is primarily driven by spatial location, likely reflecting vulnerability during sleep and the importance of elevated points for vigilance. Together this highlights the need to consider perch characteristics and spatial placement when designing housing systems for growing pullets.
