OBJECTIVES:The aims of these studies were to (a) document the creation of the Wellbeing Hononga Index (WeHI), (b) demonstrate how psychometric practices can be Indigenized, and (c) provide a novel protocol for psychometrically validating survey measures. METHOD:We developed a new ordinal response scale based on the "Pūhā" plant and created 41 survey items based on the Ngaruroro model of Māori well-being (MW; Study 1). Interviews with eight Māori community members guided the refinement of this response scale and the survey items. Responses from 943 self-identifying Māori adults were analyzed using a new 11-step R-based validation protocol that incorporated item response theory analyses, factor analyses, and convergent validity tests (Study 2). Our scale development processes were evaluated by applying an adapted version of Graham Smith's five tests of veracity. RESULTS:The final 21-item measure formed an acceptable Mokken scale and provided robust coverage across the latent spectrum of Māori well-being. Evidence of within-item multidimensionality suggested that the WeHI captures two latent constructs, well-being and Māori cultural connections (hononga). The scale demonstrated strong model fit and scalar invariance across seven different demographic groupings. As expected, the WeHI moderately and positively correlated with Western measures of life satisfaction and subjective well-being. The WeHI was deemed to pass all five tests of veracity. CONCLUSIONS:We conclude that the WeHI is a psychometrically and culturally robust scale for measuring Māori well-being outcomes. The measure can also serve as a helpful tool for developing critical consciousness and facilitating self-reflection in relation to Māori well-being. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVE:Black-White interracial parents may face unique challenges when it comes to racially socializing their children. This study accounts for particular interdependent dynamics involved in racial socialization for Black-White interracial parents by examining the dyadic relationships between color-evasiveness and different forms of racial socialization (racial bias preparation [RBP], promotion of racial mistrust, and egalitarianism) while also investigating the moderating roles of parent race and gender. METHOD:A sample of 114 Black-White interracial couples (N = 228, Mage = 33.29) recruited from Amazon's Mechanical Turk individually completed surveys on color-evasiveness and racial socialization. RESULTS:Results of the actor-partner interdependence model (Kenny et al., 2006) revealed significant actor and partner relations between color-evasiveness and all three forms of racial socialization. Parent race significantly moderated both actor and partner relations involving RBP and racial mistrust, while parent race and gender significantly moderated the actor relations involving RBP. CONCLUSION:Findings suggest that White parents' with strong color-evasiveness reported less socialization that explicitly addressed racism, whereas Black parents reported more RBP and racial mistrust when their partners endorsed higher color-evasiveness. Although all mothers with strong color-evasiveness endorsed less RBP, this relationship was significantly stronger for White mothers. Implications for dyadic-focused research and clinical practice specific to interracial parents are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:We examined associations between Black mothers' discrimination experiences and psychological functioning (i.e., anxiety, depressive symptoms, and psychological well-being). In addition, we explored mindfulness and meditation frequency as moderators of these associations. METHOD:We analyzed data from a 2015 cross-sectional online study of 305 Black American mothers (Mage = 37, SD = 8.44). We ran three path analyses using Mplus (Version 8). RESULTS:Black mothers who experienced discrimination experienced higher levels of anxiety and depressive symptoms, and lower psychological well-being. Mindfulness was negatively associated with anxiety and depressive symptoms and positively associated with psychological well-being. Meditation frequency was negatively associated with anxiety and positively associated with psychological well-being. There were no significant moderating effects. CONCLUSION:Mindfulness and meditation can compensate for negative associations between discrimination and Black mothers' psychological functioning. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:Despite the advantages proposed by the healthy immigrant effect, less is known regarding whether recent cohorts of Hispanic immigrants are exhibiting better or worse physical health than their earlier born peers and how this relates to broader trends that have been transpiring in the United States. We examined whether physical health has changed across cohorts of middle-aged and older adult Hispanic immigrants living in the United States. We also explored the moderating role of gender, education, and timing of immigration. METHOD:Multilevel models were applied to longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study to examine historical changes in trajectories of health conditions, physical functioning, and grip strength among Hispanic immigrants (N = 3,007, 56% women, birth year: M = 1948, range: 1890-1968) in midlife and old age. RESULTS:Health conditions remained relatively stable across birth cohorts, whereas successive cohorts of Hispanic immigrants demonstrated better physical functioning (i.e., fewer activities of daily living, instrumental activities of daily living, and mobility difficulties) and grip strength in midlife and old age. Gender, education, age at immigration, and year of immigration did not moderate historical change across outcomes. CONCLUSION:Historical improvements in Hispanic immigrants' physical health in midlife and old age contrast with the broader trends observed in the U.S. population, suggesting that there could be aspects of immigrant development and aging that may promote historical improvements in physical health. Our discussion focuses on potential explanations for historical improvements and provides avenues for future research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:Using the Roadmap for Centering Latinx Youth Voice in Developmental Science (Bañales, Pinetta, et al., 2023) and Positive Youth Development Model for Girls of Color (Clonan-Roy et al., 2016), we explored how youth participatory action research spaces can be attuned to the sociopolitical, professional, and personal needs of Latina youth researchers. METHOD:We draw on two examples of Latina-based youth participatory action research projects-one in the Midwest and one in the Westcoast-that partner with Latina youth researchers. The first project, Latinas in Research, is a podcast created and hosted by three Latina undergraduate students. In their conversations, they explore factors that shape their identities as Latina researchers, including their language, experiences as youth, community connections, and collaborative practices within research spaces. The second project centers on Orgullosas y Poderosas, a research collaborative of Latina high school students who engaged in dialogic practices where they investigated the impact of gentrification. RESULTS:Using thematic analysis, we generated two core themes that highlight what Latina youth look for in research spaces: (a) opportunities to integrate their voices to challenge white supremacy and (b) opportunities to engage them in research for social change. CONCLUSION:Our findings emphasize the need for culturally embedded and feminist methodologies to support Latinas as they address issues affecting their communities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:Code switching is a concept that describes the ways people adapt their communication in different social settings, especially when there is potential for them to encounter social bias. In this study, we examine the psychosocial processes that are correlated with participants' self-reports of these everyday adaptations in their communication (i.e., participants' self-reported code switching tendencies). This work yields insight into potential social and psychological motivations for perceived code switching tendencies among individuals who face social stigma. METHOD:Two samples of Black American participants (Study 1: N = 342, Mage = 37.12; Study 2: N = 411, Mage = 42.53) were recruited online using Prime Panels to complete a survey about their language use and behavior in 2021 and 2022. Using these data, we examined correlations between psychosocial variables related to how people see themselves (i.e., self-identity), how they relate to others (i.e., social relations), and self-reported code switching. RESULTS:Of the self-identity variables, participants' perceptions of their Black (but not American) identity were significantly associated with their self-reported code switching tendencies. Of the social relation variables, participants' stereotype threat, social connectedness, need to belong, and racial attitudes (but not mentalizing tendencies) were significantly associated with their self-reported code switching tendencies. CONCLUSIONS:Findings from this study highlight the interdependence between self and socially relevant psychological processes and self-reported code switching and deepen our understanding of the processes that may underpin strategic self-presentational choices among Black Americans. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:This study aimed to understand how Pathways to Wellness, a social-emotional learning program codeveloped with an Indigenous community, impacted children's social-emotional well-being. A holistic approach to child well-being is critical for Indigenous children but often lacking in schools. METHOD:With two-eyed seeing and a cross-sequential and convergent mixed methods design, this study examined children's experiences and outcomes participating in Pathways to Wellness during academic years 2020-2021 and 2021-2022 when the program was implemented in Grades 3-6 in a public school in a tribal nation. In Year 1, a total of 67 children participated (Mage = 10.3; 46% girls; 73% Indigenous); in Year 2, a total of 63 children participated (Mage = 10.17; 42% girls; 81% Indigenous), for a total sample of 96 children across the 2 years. RESULTS:Quantitative findings showed that children reported more negative classroom climate, lower sense of belonging, more emotional problems, and lower resilience and well-being in the posttest than pretest, particularly in Year 2. Older girls reported the lowest scores on average in social-emotional outcomes. The qualitative results showed three themes: cultural representation in the social-emotional learning program and children's awakened cultural identity, children's enhanced knowledge of well-being and coping, and developmental differences in reactions to the program. CONCLUSIONS:This study showcased a holistic approach that draws on the strengths of the community to support the well-being of Indigenous and non-Indigenous children. The incongruence between some of the quantitative and qualitative findings illustrated the importance to consider the impact of the broader ecological context in implementing and evaluating such programs. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVE:Perceived sociocultural appearance pressures have been widely studied as predictors of body image and eating concerns. However, few studies have distinguished between pressures from mothers and fathers or examined their relative influence on these outcomes among young adults. Additionally, efforts to diversify body image research remain limited, often constrained by a focus on the West and East, neglecting regions such as South Asia. This study investigated how perceived appearance pressures from peers, mothers, and fathers relate to disinhibited eating via body image perceptions among young adults in the United States, China, and Pakistan. METHOD:Participants aged 18 to 29 years from the United States (n = 505), China (n = 342), and Pakistan (n = 304; recruited from May 2022 to May 2023) self-reported study variables of this cross-sectional study. RESULTS:In the United States, perceived appearance pressures from all three sources (peers, mothers, and fathers) were linked to disinhibited eating through lower body esteem. In China, peer appearance pressure showed a stronger association with disinhibited eating via body esteem, while in Pakistan, maternal appearance pressure was the most significant influence among the sources studied. CONCLUSIONS:By distinguishing maternal and paternal pressures and comparing their roles with peer pressure across cultural contexts, this study contributes to theoretical models of body image and eating concerns. The findings highlight the importance of tailoring prevention and treatment strategies to specific cultural contexts and suggest the need for developing indigenous approaches to support global public health initiatives. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:Although critical to the labor force, organizational research rarely considers the perspectives of Black women generally and individual differences in cultural identity specifically. Simultaneously, although cultural psychologists have linked individual differences in race and gender socialization, termed the Strong Black Woman (SBW) schema, to mental health outcomes, it has not been tested in work contexts. Finally, research using the Strong Black Woman Cultural Construct Scale has largely analyzed this multidimensional construct unidimensionally, potentially obscuring subdimensions' unique effects on health and work outcomes (i.e., affect regulation, caretaking, and self-reliance). The current work addresses these empirical gaps. METHOD:Two studies using cross-sectional and multiwave designs tested relations between the SBW schema and burnout (ntotal = 343; age range = 18-69). Black women workers completed measures of the SBW schema and burnout. In Study 2, measurements were separated by 1 week. RESULTS:In Study 1, we refined the Strong Black Woman Cultural Construct Scale (SBWCCS-9) to improve subscale validity and validated the factor structure in Study 2. The multidimensional approach had the best predictive validity, accounting for approximately three times as much variance in burnout and revealing discrete costs and benefits of the SBW schema. Whereas affect regulation and caretaking were positively associated with burnout, self-reliance negatively predicted burnout. CONCLUSIONS:Black women's cultural identity plays a key role in organizational life and is best conceptualized as multidimensional. Affect regulation and caretaking contributed to burnout, whereas self-reliance offered protective benefits. The SBW schema acts as a double-edged sword in Black women's work lives. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:Although ethnic-racial identity (ERI) development is a process that occurs throughout childhood and adolescence in the U.S. context, the college setting may lead students to initiate or continue identity exploration and formation through emerging adulthood. This may be particularly true for students of color attending a predominantly White institution, who may face unique challenges related to their underrepresentation on campus. Natural mentors (i.e., supportive nonparental adults from students' preexisting social networks) may help facilitate students' identity exploration and development of ethnic-racial pride. The present study investigated the role of cumulative support from natural mentors in students' subsequent ERI exploration and ethnic-racial pride. METHOD:Participants (N = 257; 69% female) in our sample were first-year college students who identified as a member of an underrepresented ethnic-racial group. Data were collected annually via surveys across their first 3 years of college. We conducted path analyses to test whether cumulative support from up to five natural mentors during students' first year of college may have been associated with ERI exploration in students' second year and ethnic-racial pride in their third year. We also considered whether the proportion of ethnic globally-racially matched mentors students possessed may have moderated these associations. RESULTS:We found that cumulative natural mentor support was positively associated with ethnic-racial pride (i.e., private regard) via students' ERI exploration, but we also found an unexpected negative direct association between support and pride. CONCLUSIONS:Our findings suggest that the specific ways in which natural mentors provide support to students of color may determine whether the support nurtures or undermines the formation of positive ERI. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:The present research examined how gender influences Black and Latine individuals' anticipated experiences in interracial interactions and same-race interactions. METHOD:Three experimental studies (N = 1,202) were conducted. In Studies 1A and 1B, Black (S1A: Mage = 30.34, 59% women) and Latine (S1B: Mage = 27.90, 51% women) adults imagined an interaction with either a White man or a White woman. In Study 2 (N = 372), Black and Latino men (Mage = 34.35) anticipated an interaction with a White man, a White woman, a Black or Latino man, or a Black or Latina woman. After, we assessed participants' social identity threat concerns due to gender, race/ethnicity, and the combination of both identities, along with their perceptions of their interaction partner, their anticipated trust and belonging in the interaction, their interest in befriending their partner (S2), and their rejection concerns (S2). RESULTS:In Study 1, both men and women of color reported more gender-based social identity threat when they imagined a cross-gender (vs. gender-matched) interracial interaction. In Study 2, Black and Latino men reported more gender-based social identity threat when they anticipated an interaction with a White man, a White woman, and a Black or Latina woman relative to a Black or Latino man. In both studies, heightened gender-based social identity threat undermined participants' anticipated interaction experiences and willingness to engage in a future interaction with their interaction partner. CONCLUSIONS:These findings highlight the need to consider gender when examining Black and Latine women's and men's experiences in interracial interactions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVE:Student populations in higher education are rapidly increasing in diversity. Despite their access to higher education, students of color still face numerous structural and interpersonal barriers to their success within these institutions. Plethora of research suggests that more racially diverse groups improve climate and performance within institutions; however, it is less clear whether it matters where this diversity is represented. METHODS:We experimentally tested whether racial diversity on college campuses would shape important student-related outcomes, such as sense of belonging, interests in the institution, and their perceptions of the institution's commitment to diversity. Importantly, we examine whether these effects of racial diversity differ when this representation is presented in student versus faculty populations on campus. RESULTS:Across two studies, we find that racially diverse campuses lead to more belonging, college interest, and honest perceptions of an institution's commitment to diversity, which are crucial for students to both enter and succeed within institutions of higher learning. However, we detect no differences whether this diversity is represented within students versus faculty. Critically, we find no differences in these effects among students of color and White students. CONCLUSIONS:These findings suggest that greater racial diversity on college campuses is essential to fostering positive student-related outcomes, not only for students of color but also for all students. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVE:Establishing a positive ethnic-racial identity (ERI) and U.S. identity (USI) is an important cultural asset capable of promoting positive adjustment. Although exploration has been identified as the fundamental process underlying ERI and USI development, existing research has largely utilized a unidimensional conceptualization. The present study sought to replicate Syed et al.'s (2013) findings, which differentiated between two forms of ERI exploration, search (i.e., reflection/talking to others) and participation (i.e., involvement in events/experiences), and extend to USI. Moreover, we sought to examine the unique associations between ERI and USI exploration with resolution and negative affect. METHOD:The sample included 416 Hispanic/Latine college students (83.7% female; Mage = 20.57 years) recruited from a psychology department participant pool at a public Hispanic-serving institution in South Florida in 2017. Participants completed the online survey at their convenience in exchange for course credit. RESULTS:Findings provided support for the differentiation between ERI and USI search and participation, which were uniquely and differentially associated with resolution and negative affect. CONCLUSION:Our study highlights the need to move beyond unidimensional conceptualizations of exploration. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVE:Latinx engineering undergraduate students often face racial and gender barriers that shape their career expectations. Guided by Berry's acculturation framework, this study tested whether latent cultural orientation profiles moderate these relationships. METHOD:Participants were 821 Latinx engineering undergraduate students (48% women; Mage = 20.1, SD = 1.7). Latent profile analysis identified four profiles: bicultural, moderately bicultural, assimilated, and separated. A latent mixture regression model tested whether profiles moderated prospective associations between Time 1 barriers and Time 2 engineering outcome expectations, controlling for baseline expectations and gender. RESULTS:Profiles significantly moderated the effect of gender barriers, Wald χ²(3) = 10.25, p = .017. Only the assimilated group (Class 3) showed a significant positive slope (b = 0.27, p = .042). In contrast, other groups showed nonsignificant slopes. No overall moderation emerged for racial barriers, Wald χ²(3) = 6.91, p = .075, though the separated group (Class 4) showed a significant negative slope (b = -0.66, p = .048), indicating vulnerability to racial barriers. CONCLUSIONS:Findings highlight the importance of considering cultural orientation profiles when examining how barriers influence Latinx students' career development. Whereas gender barriers may serve as a motivational challenge for assimilated students, racial barriers may undermine expectations for separated students. Psychologists and education professionals should tailor interventions to account for these cultural differences to better support Latinx engineering students' persistence and advancement in the field. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:Ethnically and racially minoritized college students encounter various forms of discrimination, which disrupt sleep health. However, the mechanisms linking daily and chronic discrimination and sleep are less clear. This study investigated coping responses as a mediator linking discrimination and sleep at both the daily and chronic levels. METHOD:The analytic sample includes 482 ethnically and racially minoritized first-year college students (Mage = 18.4 years, SD = 0.45; 77% female; 24% Asian or Asian American; 15% Black, African American or West Indian; 25% Hispanic or Latinx; 35% multiracial; and 1% other) at a predominantly White institution in the northeastern United States. Everyday discrimination, ethnic and racial discrimination, coping responses to stressful events, and sleep were measured with self-reported, 14-day daily diary surveys. RESULTS:Results from multilevel mediation analysis showed that rumination fully mediated the within person-level associations between both everyday discrimination and ethnic and racial discrimination and sleep onset latency. Rumination also mediated the between person-level associations between everyday discrimination and ethnic and racial discrimination and sleep health (i.e., sleep duration, sleep quality, respectively). Although discrimination was associated with problem solving, problem solving was not associated with sleep within or across participants. CONCLUSIONS:Discrimination is a daily and chronic social stressor that is associated with impaired sleep health. This study shows that this association is explained by ruminative arousal. Leveraging these novel findings to promote sleep health among ethnically and racially minoritized college students during the college transition, implications for theory, research, and practice are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:This study introduces the LGBTQ+ People of Color Microaggressions Scale-2 (LGBTQ+ PCMS-2), a multidimensional measure of intersectional microaggressions for LGBTQ+ people of color. METHOD:The scale was developed using a mixed methods approach that included a qualitative phase (N = 12) to develop the scale items and a quantitative phase (N = 605) to validate the items. RESULTS:Psychometric analyses showed that the LGBTQ+ PCMS-2 comprises seven subscales. Results supported this scale's structural, convergent, discriminant, and criterion validity. CONCLUSIONS:The LGBTQ+ PCMS-2 can better account for mental health problems when tested against the current leading measure of intersectional microaggressions. Three key strengths of the LGBTQ+ PCMS-2 include the following: (a) It is the only intersectional microaggressions measure currently available to include all three forms of microaggressions faced by LGBTQ+ people of color (racism, heterosexism, and cissexism), (b) it introduces three novel domains of intersectional microaggressions, and (c) it has evidence supporting its wide applicability for LGBTQ+ people of color with diverse racial/ethnic identities, sexual identities, gender identities, and ages. The additions of these features make the LGBTQ+ PCMS-2 the most comprehensive and widely applicable measure of intersectional microaggressions to date. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVE:Existing intersectional research and measures have largely focused on Queer and Trans Black, Indigenous, and People of Color's (QT-BIPOC) experiences of intersectional oppression rather than their strengths and resilience. Current conceptualizations of resilience often rely on individualistic, White, and cisheteronormative perspectives that fail to capture the complex, collective, and identity-affirming forms of resilience and resistance among QT-BIPOC. Our study developed and validated the Queer and Trans Black, Indigenous, and People of Color Resilience Measure (QT-BIPOC RM) to address important gaps, expand resilience conceptualizations, and aid in furthering intersectional resilience research. METHOD:Eighty-three items were generated for the QT-BIPOC RM utilizing a community-centered and multistage approach (e.g., grounding items in qualitative data, expert feedback, cognitive interviews with QT-BIPOC). We tested the factor structure, measurement invariance, and various forms of validity using an online sample of QT-BIPOC (N = 676). RESULTS:Findings illustrated that the QT-BIPOC RM scale has sound psychometric properties. Factor analysis showed a three-factor structure that included Inner Strength and Self-Love, Resistance and Self-Preservation, and Mutuality and Collective Healing. Measurement invariance and various types of validity were also supported. CONCLUSIONS:The QT-BIPOC RM scale is introduced as a novel measure of resilience and resistance for QT-BIPOC. Our measure redefines resilience by challenging Eurocentric, individualistic frameworks and highlighting how QT-BIPOC resist intersectional oppression through self-preservation, collective healing, and the creation of empowering identity-based narratives. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:Black fathers in America play crucial roles in the development of their children, but face systemic and structural inequities that strain their fatherhood role and negatively affect their well-being and family experiences. Research on Black fatherhood has traditionally been reactive, deficit-based, and conducted without input from Black fathers themselves, with fatherhood services and policies following suit. METHOD:The present study utilized concept mapping, a community-based participatory research method, to assess what Black fathers in America need to adapt and succeed in their fatherhood role despite the sociopolitical context in which they live. RESULTS:Black community advisory board participants (n = 9) brainstormed 60 unique items and grouped them into six unique clusters: gatekeeper-less resources, tools of relational engagement, receptivity to influence, sustained mentorship and accountability growth, positive internal mindset, and purposeful leadership. CONCLUSIONS:By centering the voices of Black fathers and those who support them, this study provides a framework for future programmatic and advocacy efforts to foster the positive adaptation and success of Black fathers. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:In this study, we examined the relations between involvement in queer and/or transgender and Black, Indigenous, and other people of color (QTBIPOC) activism and posttraumatic growth (PTG). We also examined the mediating roles of community connection, meaning in life, and problem-solving coping in this link. Further, we examined if experiences of discrimination from other lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ+) and Black, Indigenous, and other people of color persons might moderate/weaken these relations. METHOD:We recruited 206 QTBIPOC individuals primarily through social media ads and research announcements sent to QTBIPOC-related groups and listservs. Participants (Mage = 33 years; 49% transgender; 34% Black, 22% Asian, 21% multiracial, 14% Latine, 6% Native American) completed an online cross-sectional survey. RESULTS:At the bivariate level, we found that more involvement in QTBIPOC activism was related to greater PTG (r = .20). We also found that QTBIPOC activism was indirectly related to PTG through more meaning in life and problem-solving coping (but not QTBIPOC, LGBTQ+, nor Black, Indigenous, and other people of color community connection). Finally, we found that the indirect effect of QTBIPOC activism on PTG via meaning in life was stronger for those experiencing high levels of racism within the LGBTQ+ community but only in the model without covariates. CONCLUSIONS:Our findings indicate that active coping at both the collective and individual level, meaning in life, and racism within the LGBTQ+ community are important in understanding QTBIPOC psychological growth associated with identity-based insidious trauma. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
OBJECTIVES:Research on racial-ethnic socialization (RES) in Asian American families is growing, yet South Asian families and younger children remain understudied. Additionally, parents' race-related beliefs and RES decision making have been overlooked. Although model minority internalization (MMI) beliefs have been linked to developmental outcomes among Asian American youth and adults, their role in RES is not well understood. This partial mixed methods study examined how South Asian American parents' racial-ethnic identity, racial discrimination experiences, and MMI endorsement relate to their RES practices and explored parents' reasons for addressing or avoiding racism. METHOD:South Asian American parents (N = 119; Mage = 37.89, SD = 5.58) with children aged 6-12 completed an online survey; a subset (n = 13) participated in interviews. RESULTS:Path analyses showed that racial-ethnic identity and MMI were positively associated with cultural socialization, whereas discrimination experiences and beliefs in Asian Americans' unrestricted mobility were linked to racial socialization. Qualitative findings highlight the complexity of RES and the various factors shaping parents' approaches. CONCLUSION:Findings suggest that MMI may promote cultural maintenance by reinforcing "positive" Asian stereotypes and that some South Asian parents prepare their children for racism by minimizing its significance. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2026 APA, all rights reserved).
