Diagnosing and treating intoxication in exotic pets can be challenging due to lack of species and toxin knowledge, reporting, and resources by both veterinarians and owners. We performed an American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Poison Control database search from 2021 to 2025 to identify common intoxications reported in exotic animal patients, denoting route of absorption and separated by vertebrate classes, including mammals (excluding dogs and cats), birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish.
Copper, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamins A, C, and D are essential nutrients but can cause disease when deficient or excessive in exotic animals. Copper toxicity often results from dietary overload, causing liver damage and hemolysis, while deficiency leads to neurologic signs. Iron overload, especially in birds, causes hemosiderosis and organ damage. Zinc toxicity commonly arises from ingesting metal objects, producing neurological and gastrointestinal signs. Vitamin imbalances cause diverse effects: vitamin A affects epithelial health, vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy, and vitamin D toxicity leads to hypercalcemia and tissue calcification. Proper diet management is critical.
Many exotic companion animals are housed indoors and in close proximity to their human counterparts, increasing the potential for airborne toxicant exposure. Birds are particularly vulnerable because of their extremely efficient respiratory system. This article summarizes current knowledge on several airborne toxicants; smoke, carbon monoxide, oxygen, common household products and appliances, and tobacco and tobacco-like products. These substances have either been documented or are suspected to pose health risks to exotic animal species. Where possible, evidence-based treatment recommendations and management strategies are presented. Because airborne toxicants exposure can result in severe illness/death, client education and prevention remain critical.
Reproductive surgery is a common procedure in small mammal practice, performed for both elective and therapeutic indications. This article reviews species-specific reproductive anatomy and provides practical guidance for ovariectomy, ovariohysterectomy, hysterotomy, orchiectomy, and surgical management of accessory sexual glands and mammary glands disorders in rabbits, rodents, and ferrets. It also describes the available approaches for each technique, outlining their respective advantages and disadvantages. Key considerations include appropriate patient preparation, careful tissue handling, and selection of surgical approach based on species and pathology. Techniques to minimize postoperative pain, gastrointestinal stasis, infection, and herniation are emphasized.
Small mammal ocular surgery requires knowledge on species-specific anatomic challenges that demand refined microsurgical skills. Rabbits frequently require surgical treatment of nasolacrimal obstruction, Harderian gland prolapse, corneal ulcers, and cataracts, with phacoemulsification offering good outcomes for the later. Hystricomorph rodents often present with dental-related retrobulbar abscesses, nonhealing corneal ulcers, or cataracts requiring enucleation. Ferrets commonly undergo surgical management of conjunctival lesions, cataracts, and orbital masses. In rats, mice, and hamsters, globe removal procedures dominate due to small ocular dimensions and fragile vasculature. Across species, careful anesthesia, magnification, and hemostasis are essential for a successful outcome.
Advances in imaging, anesthesia, and surgical techniques have made thoracic surgery in small mammals clinically feasible, yet it remains challenging due to their small size, unique physiology, and the anatomic complexity of the thorax. Improvements in computed tomography, endoscopy, and perioperative care now allow safer and more precise diagnosis and treatment. Consequently, procedures such as midline thoracotomies for thymomas, pulmonary lobectomies, thoracoscopy, and even more specialized interventions like pacemaker implantation are now performed with increasing reliability. Nevertheless, successful intervention still demands meticulous planning and a thorough understanding of species-specific limitations.
This review article outlines urinary surgery in small mammals, stressing precise planning, specialized instruments, and tissue-sparing, minimally invasive approaches to reduce morbidity. It covers preoperative, perioperative, and postoperative care, including thorough preoperative workup, stabilization, imaging, and dietary advice to prevent recurrence of urolithiasis. Detailed techniques span kidney (biopsy, nephrotomy, nephrectomy, nephroureterectomy, and pyelolithotomy), ureter (urethrotomy, ureteroneocystostomy, stents, and subcutaneous ureteral bypass), and bladder procedures (cystotomy, cystectomy, cystopexy, and tube cystotomy). It also discusses urethral surgeries (urethrotomy, urethrostomy, and penile amputation), bladder herniation, and minimally invasive options (cystolithotomy and endoscopy-guided lithotripsy). Prognosis depends on underlying disease and adequate postoperative care.
Otitis is a relatively common condition in pet rabbits and may affect one or several parts of the ear: the external ear canal, the middle ear, and the inner ear. A higher incidence is observed in lop-eared rabbits, likely related to the anatomy of their external ear canals. In many cases, medical management alone rarely leads to complete resolution. The anatomic and physiologic differences of the rabbit ear require species-specific considerations. A precise understanding of the anatomy of the external and middle ear is therefore essential for accurate diagnosis and appropriate therapeutic planning.
This review article outlines soft tissue surgery in reptiles, emphasizing adaptation of domestic carnivore principles to reptile anatomy and physiology. It covers inclusion criteria for literature, preoperative management (thermoregulation, fasting, fluids, analgesia, and antibiotics), and species-specific considerations for patient handling and asepsis. Detailed sections describe surgical approaches across systems: skin and subcutaneous tissue, venous/arterial vasculature (aneurysms), coelomic surgery (coeliotomy approaches for saurians, ophidians, chelonians, and crocodilians), digestive tract procedures (gastrotomy, enterectomy, and anastomosis), hepatobiliary interventions (cholecystectomy and hepatectomy), urinary tract, reproductive tract (ovariectomy, salpingectomy, and orchidectomy), and miscellaneous fat pad surgery, highlighting species variation and practical techniques.
Soft tissue surgery in fish is an expanding field driven by advances in anesthesia, imaging and perioperative care. Contemporary techniques enable safe removal of neoplastic and inflammatory masses and repair of posttraumatic lesions, with evidence-based protocols for pain management and infection control. Integration of the One Health paradigm is essential for antibiotic stewardship, zoonotic risk mitigation, and clinical biosecurity. Greater focus on welfare, standardization, and multidisciplinary collaboration is needed to establish fish surgery as a sustainable and ethical practice in veterinary medicine dealing with aquatic species, a large sector of aquaculture.
Hepatobiliary disease in exotic mammals is a relatively underexplored field compared with that of dogs and cats. However, recent advances in diagnostic imaging, anesthesia, and microsurgical techniques have expanded the range of feasible interventions for species such as rabbits, ferrets, guinea pigs, and other small mammals. Among exotic mammals, rabbits appear to be the most commonly affected by hepatobiliary pathology, with hepatic lobe torsion representing the predominant surgical indication. This review article will mainly focus those 2 conditions and integrates the existing exotic animal literature with well-established principles from canine and feline hepatobiliary surgery.
Amphibians are the most threatened group of vertebrates worldwide, with over 40% of species currently classified as at risk. Despite the increasing clinical and conservation needs, the available literature on amphibian surgery remains limited to outdated textbooks and isolated case reports. This review provides an updated and practical synthesis of surgical knowledge applicable to species commonly maintained in captivity. Indications, approaches, and complications for procedures such as ovariectomy, castration, gastrotomy, enterotomy, and minimally invasive surgery are discussed. The aim is to provide clinicians with evidence-based guidance and expert-informed recommendations to enhance the safety and effectiveness of surgical interventions in amphibians.
