A time to reflect with students on the many ing each week so that any particular class troublesome issues they are living with, and an was missed only once or twice a semester, opportunity to help them deal with them. Because some classroom teachers were in —A group leader volved as coleaders, staff cooperated in This article describes one public high providing class coverage for each other school's structured group program involvwhen necessary. At the beginning of each ing students and staff in a collaborative session one of the coleaders restated the effort to address many problems affecting group guidelines, and usually asked if students and their success in school. The anyone had anything to share. The begin need for strategies to improve students' ning of each session was frequently a ten academic, affective, and behavioral school tative feeling out of the group in order experiences, documented by increasing to determine who might want to capture numbers of referrals to the high school's the group's attention to discuss their own child study team, led to development of issues, and how those issues could repre general discussion groups centering on sent a common concern (Shulman, 1984). personal concerns. All interested faculty Coleaders went to each meeting with a members were invited to participate as planned agenda, but realized that mem group leaders. Initially, several counselors bers had to be free to decide whether or and teachers were willing to lead these not to focus on that agenda. Leaders groups, but were reluctant to colead reflected content and feeling, clarified groups on specific topics. As the program messages, helped members recognize and progressed, however, they became more use their own resources, and encouraged comfortable in leading structured groups members to find their own solutions to on specified issues. problems in a climate of freedom and trust. They usually met briefly before and after each session for planning and review THE STRUCTURED GROUP PROGRAM
Since the turn of the century, juvenile delinquency, which is defined as antisocial or criminal behavior by children or adolescents (Morris, 1980), has been an important area of study. However, never has the study of delinquency been more important than the present, as schools seek promising paradigms for reaching American youth. An essential foundation for the development and evaluation of preventive interventions is determining the nature, extent, and causes of delinquent behavior.
African Americans represent the largest care, and the mortality rate is high for culturally diverse group in the United African American infants (Kappan Special States (United States Department of ComReport, 1990; National Center for Health merce, Bureau of the Census [USDOC], Statistics, [NCHS], 1990). Additionally, one 1987), yet statistics indicate a high risk out of every two families in this popula factor for the well-being of the African tion lives in poverty (USDOC, 1987). When American population. Economic hardships compared with other cultural groups, Af and the psychological and physiological rican American youth, especially boys, are burden of oppression are lethally comdisproportionately represented among bined to disadvantage African Ameriperpetrators and victims of aggressive cans, adding significant obstacles to their crimes or of violent crimes (Hacker, 1992; successful academic, personal, and social NCHS, 1990). When compared with the development (Barbarin, 1993). Statistics Anglo-American adolescent male popula provide the basis for considerable concern tion, African American male adolescents for the long-term emotional, social, and ecoare at a greater risk in terms of criminal nomic existence of African Americans, esity and death rates at a ratio of 5:1 (NCHS, pecially men. 1990). As a result of the inequities of soci For example, two thirds of the African ety, African American male adolescents are American population have poor health at greater risk for developing frustration and anger (Campbell-Whatley, 1993). Many variables seem to interact with those Gloria D. Campbell-Whatley is art assistant propreviously identified to contribute to poor fessor in the School of Education of Indiana Unieducational development among African versity-Purdue University, Fori Wayne, Indiana. American adolescents as well. Bob Algozzine is a professor and research fellow Research on academic achievement in
of 14, social and economic conditions made system has produced workers who are career guidance a necessity. inadequately trained to compete in today's Over the years, economic conditions have world. They contend that our high school changed and provided a new challenge for graduates need skills in mathematics, school counselors and educators. In the science, and language arts in conjunction recent past, counselors were expected to with information processing and problem encourage their students to prepare for solving to be successful workers in today's work by pursuing some form of higher competitive world. (North Carolina Edu education. Graduation from high school cation Standards and Accountability Com was considered the minimum preparation mission, 1994). for entering the workforce. According to Along with the development of work the latest research, counselors and edu- skills, future employers are expecting stu cators are learning that attending college dents to be able to identify the skills they
Recent trends in career development theory There is extensive literature on the sig include the acknowledgment of a broad nificance of socialization on the develop range of contextual influences on career ment of the child and younger adolescent, development (McMahon & Patton, 1995; Gender role socialization is one of the Vondracek, Lerner, & Schulenberg, 1986) earliest, and thus potentially one of the and the acceptance of life-span career demost powerful, forms of socialization. The velopment (Super, 1990). Although these effect of gender role socialization is far are accepted concepts, little career develreaching; a significant consequence is that opment research has focused on children young people may only perceive a narrow and adolescents (Phipps, 1995), and it is only gender-based range of future options, par comparati vely recently that a body of litticularly in relation to education and career erature on the influence of gender on caopportunities. Recent research continues reer development has been developed. Sigto show that career preferences are formed nificantly drawing together these two early (Poole & Low, 1985) and continue to underresearched areas, this article exambe influenced by gender (Gerstein, ines gender differences in the career develLichtman, & Barokas, 1993), even after ex opment of children and adolescents. tensive school-based programs that at tempt to change these preferences (Wheelahan & Knowles, 1993). Given the trend to increase the status of
Many parents have serious concerns about dren, they distrust many educational in their children's public school education. novations and trends, and their support They want not only safe schools but ones is fragile (Bradley, 1995b; Shanker, 1995). in which their children will meet the highFor the past 20 years, polls show public est academic standards to prepare them worry about public school safety, disci for success in a complex, competitive world. pline, and the academic basics (Bradley, Parents' is becoming a rallying 1995a). In the 1994 Gallup Poll, 37% believed cry for a diverse group of parents, some that their community's schools—and 51% aligned in formal interest groups and othbelieved that the nation's public schools as ers who are simply involved individuals, a whole—have gotten worse in the last 5 all genuinely worried about public schools' years (Elam, Rose, & Gallup, 1994). More effectiveness in preparing their children for over, although schooling costs have risen the future. Some parents' rights champi61% in the past 25 years, only 28% of these ons want to end school counseling and dollars goes to the regular education class other student-focused programs because room. Part of the money pays for increased they are seen as nonacademic innovations special education and school counseling that not only detract from traditional subservices. For all its costs, therefore, the ject instruction but also invade family pripublic sees minimal improvement in stu vacy. Are school counselors at risk? dent learning (Lindsay, 1995; Miles & Rothstein, 1995).
representative samples of students'work in Desiring to have guidance materials portfolios to document progress, accomrepresented in students' academic portfo plishments, experiences, and development u0S/ j adapted a college level student de (Darling-Hammond, 1994; Engel, 1994; velopment portfolio concept. Guidance Maclsaac & Jackson, 1994; Meisels, 1995; portfolios were introduced at Kilby School Meisels, Liaw, Dorfman, & Nelson, 1995; to (a) chronicle samples of students' pref Melograno, 1994). These carefully edited erences, interests, personal descriptions, and tailored collections of artifacts (Macand goals; (b) facilitate safekeeping of Isaac & Jackson, 1994, p. 64) provide a foguidance materials for future reference; rum for communication with parents and (c) communicate activities conducted (Engel, 1994) and an opportunity for stuby the counselor to parents. Specifically, dents to reflect, review, and assess their the portfolios address curriculum goals in progress (Darling-Hammond, 1994; Macareas of career decision making and hu Isaac & Jackson, 1994; Melograno, 1994). man growth and development. Curricu Portfolios have been adopted as one form lum objectives relate to students' abilities of student assessment at Kilby Laboratory to (a) identify and anticipate their individual School. Approximately 150 children in kinchanges in competence, preferences, and dergarten and 6th grade attend this uniphysical stature; (b) recognize relationships versity-based school that also provides between interests and positive career de clinical experiences for university students. cision processes; and (c) engage in age Kilby Laboratory School has one counseappropriate career exploration and re lor who conducts weekly developmental search procedures, guidance lessons in each classroom, accord
Early in the 1994-95 school year, I (Elinor One of the outcomes of these meetings Berube) provided and administered a led to the development of a comprehen needs assessment, the Survey of Student sive list of small group choices. This list Concerns, to identify students' concerns included the following small groups: lead (see Appendix). When the assessment data ership training, peer mediation, my future, from the students were tabulated, I was special study hall, lunch with the principal, overwhelmed by the number of issues the lunch bunch, friendship group, peer students were concerned with. My first step buddies group, children of alcoholics, and a was to immediately share with the princirainbows group. I explained during sched pal and a counselor educator colleague the uled class time, with the teacher present, the tabulated results and ask for input. I then results of the Survey of Student Concerns, shared these concerns with the teachers at the small group choices, times and places of a staff meeting, which provided the first meetings, and also provided sign-up sheets idea: a place and time for students to study to students. There were no limits on the during school hours. The next step was to number of groups in which students might share the assessment data with the stuchoose to participate. Parents had to sign dents' parents at the next Parents Teacher permission slips for students to join groups. Organization (PTO) meeting. That meeting provided information about community SMALL GROUP CHOICES resources at Western Illinois University as well as several parent volunteers. Information about each of the groups is presented in the following order: type of group, goals and objectives, content, and 77 I 7 ! ! ' 7 • 7 ~ evaluation data followed by a discussion. Elinor Berube is in private practice m Peoria, 3 Illinois. Lionel Berube is an assistant professor at Bradley University in Peoria. Correspondence L@adershIpTraining regarding this article should be sent to Lionel Berube, 108 Westlake Hall, Bradley University, Goals. The overall goal of this group was Peoria, IL 61625. to address the students' need to be seen
In a recent article in The School Counselor, help. Rather, parents must be brought Kottman, Robert, and Baker (1995) disinto process so that they can affirm and cussed importance of school and reinforce what classroom teacher is at parental cooperation in helping children tempting to accomplish. diagnosed with attention deficit hyperacUnfortunately, providing daily feedback tivity disorder (ADHD). These authors through a note can be a demanding and clearly documented that parents of time-consuming problem for regular ADHD children are under considerable classroom teacher. Therefore, devising a stress. Furthermore, they pointed to checklist that not only maximizes informa importance of providing parents with tion, but truly addresses child's spe feedback about their child's classroom percific problem needs to be implemented. formance so that home and school Furthermore, checklist should be one could work together in modifying and that can be both simply and quickly corn controlling child's behavior. Kottman pleted. I have developed and used such a etal. (1995) specifically recommended that checklist that has been particularly success counselor should try to make arrangeful with providing feedback to ADHD chil ments with child's teacher to have a dren and their parents. A copy of this daily note sent home. They stated that checklist is found in Appendix. note should describe the day's behavior, Behavior modification has been clearly homework, and any other important inshown to be a viable treatment modality formation (p. 149). with ADHD children (Barkley, 1990; Go Providing daily feedback to parents mez & Cole, 1991; Lavin, 1991). The daily is important and needs to be implemented feedback sheet can be incorporated into a with many ADHD youngsters, given home-based point system in which child severity of their behavioral and learning can be reinforced or penalized for his or difficulties. The school alone cannot and her performance at school. The Home should not attempt to try to cope with Token Economy system developed by ADHD child's problem without parental Alvord (1977) can be used effectively in this regard. Not only can ADHD child earn points for remembering to bring home ~ — I 7 7 7 i77 completed form, but he or she can also earn Paul Lavin is an assistant professor of psychol. r ogy at Towson State University in Towson, Marypoints for a good day at school. land. Correspondence regarding this article The value of this proposed checklist is that should be sent to Paul Lavin, 9 Park Drive, it can be completed easily and quickly. It Catonsville, MD 21228. provides immediate, specific information
A comprehensive, developmental model Spady, 1970), better school attendance for school counseling has recently been de(Jable, 1986; Laughlin, 1978), improved scribed (Gysbers & Henderson, 1988) and social standing among peers (Caulfield, promoted (Borders & Drury, 1992; Gysbers, 1980; Spady, 1970), and reduced delin Hughey, Starr, & Lapan, 1992). This model quency (Landers & Landers, 1978). Further fosters the development of student more, Jable saw beneficial consequences competency in broad areas of lifelong of EAP in lower dropout rates and less learning, personal effectiveness, and life involvement with drugs. Most impressive, roles. Extracurricular activity participation student achievement in extracurricular (EAP) is one way to promote learning and activities was identified as the variable most development in some of these areas. Unpredictive of success in later life (Joekel, fortunately, EAP can be perceived as in1985). terfering with academic success. Moreover, Additional support for EAP comes from it is our experience that academic pressures self-complexity research. Linville (1985, are often used by students or their par1987) demonstrated that diversity inabili ents as a reason to avoid EAP. ties and group membership may serve as EAP has been shown to be a positive faca buffer against stress. EAP enables stu tor in the overall development of adolesdents to master new skills and explore dif cents (Holland & Andre, 1987; Taylor & ferent roles outside the classroom setting. Chiogioji, 1988). In addition, EAP has been Another assertion of the inherent value in associated with positive student outcomes self-complexity and diversity is the advice including higher career aspirations (Marsh, that No life component should contrib 1992; Otto & Alwin, 1977; Picou, 1978; ute more than one-third to self-esteem
An imposing problem facing society is the During the past decade, professional rising level of interpersonal conflict that is educators and counselors have imple manifested in our nation. Increases in the mented various conflict resolution pro number of reported homicides and asgrams in their schools to help students de saults (Federal Bureau of Investigation, velop the skills necessary to resolve 1994), the rising incidence of domestic interpersonal differences more effectively violence (Browne, 1993; Kilpatrick, Edand respectfully. Interest in this area is im monds, & Seymore, 1992), the escalation of portant for several reasons. First, the in violent hate crimes directed at persons creasing number of conflicts and the rising from diverse ethnic-racial backgrounds level of violence that are affecting young (D/Andrea & Daniels, 1994a; Katz & Taylor, sters of all ages and backgrounds are social 1988), and the increasing incidence of viorealities that have caught the attention of lent acts perpetrated by secondary, middle, the nation. As a result, many educational and even elementary school-age students administrators, teachers, counselors, par (Ferrara, 1992) all attest to the frequency ents, and students have expressed the need with which destructive conflicts routinely to develop programs designed to promote occur in our communities and schools. Bepeace in their schools, cause the human consequences of these Second, the rapid cultural diversification and other conflicts are so costly, there has of the United States is occurring at a time been a groundswell of interest and support when the state of race relations is seriously across the country for programs that prodeteriorating in this country (Harvey, 1991). mote strategies for learning constructive These two factors further reinforce the need dispute resolution. for educational programs that are specifi cally designed to help ameliorate the in terethnic and interracial tensions that exist
Dignity is a right (Melton, 1991; NewDignity can be defined as a perception mann & Kelly, 1983; Wright, 1987). The of respect and competence that allows a preamble of the Ethical Standards for the person to feel valued, to be authentic, to American School Counselor Association grow and learn, and to value and care (Gysbers & Henderson, 1994) states, about others. Children have not always Each person has the right to respect and been considered fully human or deserv (p. 385). Similarly, the United ing of dignity. In the fifteenth century, Nations Convention of 1989 on the Rights children were considered property or of Children accords respect to children chattel. By the eighteenth century, with for their dignity (Melton, 1991). Howthe establishment of the middle class, the ever, children who receive demeaning conjugal family was organized around feedback in school and at home often do children (Hart & Pavlovic, 1991), a change not recognize their own worth. Their that increased children's value. Earlier in experience does not confirm their digthis century, the 1948 United Nations nity as human beings. This article examDeclaration of Human Rights went a step ines the consequences of lessened perfurther, indicating that all persons are sonal dignity for students' learning, deborn equal in dignity (Wright, 1987). This velopment, and ability to meet needs. view is confirmed by Harcum and Rosen Furthermore, we propose a model that (1990), Kemp and Hall (1992), and Wright suggests ways for counselors to enhance (1987). They contended that contrary to the development and recognition of digthe belief that people need to prove their nity among students. worth (Skinner, 1971), dignity is inher ent. Because each person is born with dignity, a person's perception of personal dignity can be diminished, but dignity can never be totally destroyed. Although Susann R Hill is a school counselor for Grades a tjve environment and demeaning K-12at Leland Community School District, Leland, , 7 ° Illinois. Toni R. Tollerudis an associate professor experiences can decrease perceived dlg of counseling, both in the Department of EducamtY' positive experiences within an en tional Psychology, Counseling, and Special Educavironment of unconditional caring and tion at Northern Illinois University, DeKalb. Correspect can enable an increased percep respondence regarding this article should be sent tion of dignity. Personal actions can help to Toni R. Tollerud, Dept. ofEPCSE, Northern IIstudents gain insight into the reality of linois University, DeKalb, IL 60115. their personal dignity.
