A breakthrough for studying the neuronal basis of learning emerged when invertebrates with simple nervous systems, such as the sea slug Hermissenda crassicornis, were shown to exhibit classical conditioning. Hermissenda learns to associate light with turbulence: prior to learning, naive animals move toward light (phototaxis) and contract their foot in response to turbulence; after learning, conditioned animals delay phototaxis in response to light. The photoreceptors of the eye, which receive monosynaptic inputs from statocyst hair cells, are both sensory neurons and the first site of sensory convergence. The memory of light associated with turbulence is stored as changes in intrinsic and synaptic currents in these photoreceptors. The subcellular mechanisms producing these changes include activation of protein kinase C and MAP kinase, which act as coincidence detectors because they are activated by convergent signaling pathways. Pathways of interneurons and motorneurons, where additional changes in excitability and synaptic connections are found, contribute to delayed phototaxis. Bursting activity recorded at several points suggest the existence of small networks that produce complex spatiotemporal firing patterns. Thus, the change in behavior may be produced by a nonlinear transformation of spatiotemporal firing patterns caused by plasticity of synaptic and intrinsic channels. The change in currents and the activation of PKC and MAPK produced by associative learning are similar to those observed in hippocampal and cerebellar neurons after rabbit classical conditioning, suggesting that these represent general mechanisms of memory storage. Thus, the knowledge gained from further study of Hermissenda will continue to illuminate mechanisms of mammalian learning.
The Anatomical RecordVolume 253, Issue 4 p. 100-101 FocusFree Access AAA award winners Duane E. Haines, Ph.D., Chairman, Editorial Advisory Board, Corresponding Author Duane E. Haines, Ph.D., Chairman, Editorial Advisory Board Department of Anatomy, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 32216-4505Department of Anatomy, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 North State Street, Jackson, MS 32216-4505Search for more papers by this author Duane E. Haines, Ph.D., Chairman, Editorial Advisory Board, Corresponding Author Duane E. Haines, Ph.D., Chairman, Editorial Advisory Board Department of Anatomy, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 32216-4505Department of Anatomy, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 North State Street, Jackson, MS 32216-4505Search for more papers by this author First published: 26 December 2002 https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0185(199808)253:4<100::AID-AR3>3.0.CO;2-XAboutPDF ToolsRequest permissionExport citationAdd to favoritesTrack citation ShareShare Give accessShare full text accessShare full-text accessPlease review our Terms and Conditions of Use and check box below to share full-text version of article.I have read and accept the Wiley Online Library Terms and Conditions of UseShareable LinkUse the link below to share a full-text version of this article with your friends and colleagues. Learn more.Copy URL Share a linkShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditWechat No abstract is available for this article. Volume253, Issue4August 1998Pages 100-101 RelatedInformation
The New Anatomist has been a section of The Anatomical Record and an official publication of the American Association of Anatomists since 1998. The journal has enjoyed much support from authors and readers alike, eager to share in our unique perspectives on the anatomical sciences. We are ending our publication run with this issue, in order to pave the way for new publication opportunities being considered by the AAA and Wiley. On behalf of the Editorial Advisory Board and publisher John Wiley & Sons, I would like to express our appreciation for all those who have contributed time and talent to The New Anatomist over these eight years. Hundreds of authors and expert referees have endeavored to fill each issue of The New Anatomist with diverse and valuable articles. Please accept our heartfelt thanks for your efforts. With much gratitude we also recognize our Panel of Reviewers, listed on the inside cover, who provided keen insight and advice to authors and editors alike. Special recognition and appreciation go out to several Guest Editors of special issues: Bruce Carlson, Kathryn Jones, David Lester, and Robert Silver; and two former guest editors on our current Editorial Advisory Board: Richard Drake and James Olds. These individuals organized outstanding special issues on topics as wide-ranging as biomedical imaging, stem cell research, mammalian tissue regeneration, and advances in anatomical education. I also tip my hat to Robert Trelease and Geoffrey Guttmann, who in 2004 co-organized (with Richard Drake) an informative and provocative Debate Forum on the role of dissection in anatomy education. We especially appreciate our readers and supporters from the AAA, who offered valuable feedback that helped to inform the development of the journal over the years. Of course, special thanks go to all those at John Wiley & Sons who have worked hard behind the scenes to ensure the timely publication of this journal — most recently, Tracie Butchko in our Editorial Office and Cecilia Banzon in the Production Department. I must now personally thank the Editorial Advisory Board members, past and present, who invited outstanding articles and oversaw peer review of submissions. Past board members not currently listed on the journal's inside cover are Karen Augustine-Rauch, Frank Longo, David Lester, Sue O'Shea, Robert Trelstad, Thomas Van de Water, and Debra Wolgemuth. Founding Editorial Board Chairman Duane E. Haines deserves special recognition for his vision and inspiration from the very beginning of this venture, shaping The New Anatomist into a truly unique scientific publication. I admire Duane and the other advisory editors who published extensively in The New Anatomist, thus placing their faith behind the journal in a unique and proactive way. I have come away from our experiences all the richer, with not only a deeper appreciation for the anatomical sciences, but also important friendships that I hope will last well into the future.
Regenerative medicine is the basis of 21st-century biomedicine. A special 2-day AAA mini-meeting on this topic will highlight the novel role of stem cells in tissue turnover and regeneration, identify important basic science issues, and demonstrate how understanding basic science principles can be translated into novel therapeutic and diagnostic modalities. The program, chaired by Vladimir Mironov (Medical University of South Carolina), features its own poster session, chaired by Jay Potts (University of South Carolina), and four symposia, described below. Regenerative medicine could be defined as applied stem cell, regenerative, and developmental biology. The stem cell is the keystone of the ongoing regenerative medicine revolution. Both embryonic and adult stem cells demonstrate potential for effective applications in regenerative medicine. However, effective clinical translation must be based on systematic studies of stem cell biology, tissue turnover, and regeneration, as well as on understanding the mechanisms of integration of implanted cells into preexisting tissues and organs. This session focuses on different types of stem cells and their application in regenerative medicine. Chair: Marc Hedrick (Macropore Biosurgery Inc). Regenerative medicine is impossible without effective cell delivery. It is obvious that designing an optimal microenvironment is critical for successful cell therapy and cell transplantation. Injectable tissue engineering is based on employing intelligent hydrogels or functional biomimetic matrices. Functional matrices from modified natural polymers are closely mimicking natural components of extracellular matrix and even have some additional advantages because they are designed as stimuli-sensitive or smart hydrogels. This session focuses on the application of biomimetic matrices in regenerative medicine. Chair: Kevin Healy (University of California at Berkeley). Endothelial cell and tissue biology is a fundamental basic research field that is critically important for progress in cardiovascular regenerative medicine. Angiogenesis and vasculogenesis are the current focus of research on endothelial cell and tissue biology. However, endothelial cells produce new blood vessel and proliferate in response on signals or injury. Endothelial-mesenchymal transformation and associated fibrosis are becoming recognized as potential pathogenetic mechanism for many fibroproliferative diseases. This session focuses on the application of endothelial mesenchymal transformation to emerging field of cardiovascular regenerative medicine. Chair: Joyce Bishoff (Harvard University). Self-assembly is a fundamental biological process at all scales. Exploring principles of directed and even self-directed tissue self-assembly opens a unique opportunity for regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. Many soft tissues and especially cell aggregates are not solid but rather viscoelastic fluid-like structures and they can flow and fuse. This session focuses on new emerging tissue engineering technologies for regenerative medicine based on the principles of tissue self-assembly. Chair: Vladimir Mironov (Medical University of South Carolina). AAA initiated its successful mini-meeting format in 2004. A mini-meeting is a 2-day event during the AAA Annual Meeting at Experimental Biology that addresses a timely issue of sufficient breadth to attract registrants from several FASEB societies. The program includes four 2-hour symposia, each with four invitedspeakers, and a concurrent poster session posted for both days of the mini-meeting. AAA provides $10,000 to help defray a portion of travel costs for invited speakers and covers the registration and abstract fees for eight of the invited speakers. All other expenses must be supported by outside funding solicited by the organizer or covered by individual speakers. If you'd like to organize your own mini-meeting for EB 2007 or future years, just go to the AAA Website (www.anatomy.org), click on “Meeting/Proposal Form,” review the guidelines, and submit a proposal. All proposals will be evaluated by the AAA Annual Meeting Program Committee on April 5. Take advantage of this unique opportunity to create new synergy in your own area of research!
Lynne A. Opperman, associate professor of biomedical sciences at Texas A&M University System Health Science Center, has been chosen as AAA program co-chair and will serve in this position from 2006 to 2010. Lynne A. Opperman Opperman, whose research interests include craniofacial growth and development, intramembranous bone growth, molecular regulation of craniofacial suture development and morphogenesis, succeeds Robert Tomanek in the co-chair slot. She will share the AAA programming role with current program co-chair Marion “Emmy” Gordon. In her candidate's statement, Opperman noted that the anatomical sciences are “undergoing an exciting resurgence with the introduction of sophisticated new techniques for visualizing molecular and cellular events, both in vivo and in vitro.” As program co-chair, she hopes to create crossover areas of interest combining physiological, molecular, and morphological methods, both in research and in education. Also elected to the AAA Board of Directors were Carol C. Gregorio, associate professor of cell biology and anatomy, University of Arizona; Jeffrey T. Laitman, distinguished professor, professor and director of anatomy and functional morphology, professor of otolaryngology, Mount Sinai School of Medicine; and Tamara A. Franz-Odendaal, postdoctoral fellow, Department of Biology, Dalhousie University. Carol C. Gregorio Jeffrey T. Laitman Tamara A. Franz-Odendaal At the AAA Annual Business Meeting held on April 3 in San Francisco, AAA president Kathy Svoboda thanked outgoing board members Robert Tomanek, Chi-Bin Chien, Rochelle Cohen, and J. Matt Velkey for their service, presenting them each with a certificate of appreciation. Members also raised a glass of champagne toasting Duane E. Haines for his service as chairman of the New Anatomist Editorial Advisory Board from the publication's inception in 1998 through 2005.
The AAA Board of Directors has voted to discontinue publication of the New Anatomist (NA) at the end of 2006 and has asked its publisher, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., to develop a business plan for a new anatomy education journal. Following the board's vote on 31 March, AAA President Kathy Svoboda relayed the decision to the New Anatomist Editorial Board at its 4 April meeting, outlining the steps the board had taken in reaching this difficult decision. A confluence of three key factors led AAA to appoint a task force to assess the New Anatomist, published as a supplement to the Anatomical Record (AR) since 1998, and make recommendations for the future. These factors were as follows: Kurt Albertine taking over as editor of the Anatomical Record in 2005 with a new vision for the journal; Duane Haines stepping down as chair of the NA Editorial Board; and revelation of the fact that NA was no longer being tracked for impact factor, which led to concern about the effect this situation was having on AR. As part of its assessment, the NA Task Force developed an online survey that was sent to all AAA members and posted on the NA Web site. Most of the 317 who responded viewed the publication favorably. For example, more than half of the respondents read all or some of the articles in each issue and 55% reported using ideas from these articles or discussing them with a colleague. Numerous suggestions for changes and improvements were offered. In particular, many were interested in a stronger focus on anatomy education; numerous respondents recommended a greater emphasis on submitted rather than invited articles. AAA and Wiley representatives also met with Thomson Scientific, the company that tracks journal citations and impact factors. Thomson officials explained that they had discontinued coverage of NA because it publishes material that does not meet their criteria of scholarly content. Thomson further confirmed that beginning the “Part A/Part B” designations of the Anatomical Record and the New Anatomist in 2003 led to a situation whereby the Anatomical Record (published from 1906 to 2002) was viewed as a completely different journal from the Anatomical Record: Part A (published from 2003 to the present). This, in turn, made it appear that the Anatomical Record no longer had an impact factor and, conversely, that the Anatomical Record: Part A did not have an impact factor history. In either case, this was a critical concern as Albertine began his tenure as editor. Meanwhile, in discussions about the future of the New Anatomist, a proposal emerged for a new peer-reviewed education journal that would cover all areas of the anatomical sciences. Recognizing that it would take time to assess the feasibility of such a publication, the AAA board asked Wiley to drop the “Part A/Part B” designations, but to continue publishing the New Anatomist until a decision could be reached on a possible new publication. However, Wiley said that if AAA wanted to continue publishing the New Anatomist through 2007, pending a decision for the long-term, then Wiley preferred to retain the “Part A/Part B” distinction through 2007 to avoid confusing libraries. Recognizing that there would be continued damage to AR as long as the “Part A/Part B” distinction exists, the AAA board decided instead to end bimonthly publication of the New Anatomist with the November 2006 issue. This facilitates quicker implementation of an AR impact factor adjustment proposed by Thomson. NA Managing Editor Mark Paalman and the NA Editorial Advisory Board are moving ahead to fill the final issues with high-quality articles that fulfill NA's original mission of promoting and enhancing the image of anatomy. The AAA board expressed its gratitude to the NA Editorial Advisory Board: Duane Haines (chairman emeritus), Richard Drake, Paul Heidger, Jr., James Olds, Joy Reidenberg, Charles Slonecker, Ian Tattersall, and Robert Trelease. Meanwhile, the NA Task Force, chaired by Lynne Opperman and including Kurt Albertine, Richard Drake, John Fallon, and Andrea Pendleton, is working with Wiley to determine the viability of a new international education publication with both submitted and solicited articles. The scope of this journal would encompass all levels of anatomical sciences education, including undergraduate, allied health, medical (both allopathic and osteopathic), dental, graduate and postgraduate, covering issues related to gross anatomy, embryology, histology, and neuroscience education. AAA has asked both the American Association of Clinical Anatomists and the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society to participate in the new publication; both societies have expressed an interest. The AAA board expects to review a feasibility report this fall and make a decision no later than its April 2007 meeting.
Ronald Singer, the Robert R. Bensley Professor in the Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy at the University of Chicago, died 17 April, following a heart attack. He was born on 12 August, 1924, in Cape Town, South Africa, to Solomon and Sophie Singer, who immigrated to South Africa from Lithuania. Dr. Ronald Singer (1961). Nickolas Muray, Strip 88, George Eastman House, Still Photograph Archive. Full catalog record 77:0188:2695. Gift of Mrs. Nickolas Muray. Dr. Singer received his MD (1947) and his DSc (1962) from the University of Cape Town. During the 1950s, he served on the faculty at Cape Town and conducted pioneering archeological and paleontological research at several important Paleolithic sites in South Africa, including Saldanha Bay and Klasies River Mouth, near Port Elizabeth. At a time of apartheid and widespread ignorance of the nation's history, Singer was seeking to drive back the story of Homo sapiens in South Africa. This work led to a large number of monographs and papers describing human and mammalian fossil remains from the South African Pleistocene. Later, Singer expanded this work to other sites in Iran and Britain, including Clacton, Essex, and Hoxne in Suffolk. He later conducted research on Pleistocene fauna, which he excavated from the island of Grenada in the Caribbean, where he served as a guest lecturer in anatomy for a number of years in the 1980s. It is ironic that Dr. Singer's long-time research collaborator and friend, the prominent British field archeologist, John Wymer, preceded him in death by only 2 months. In Cape Town, Dr. Singer trained as a physician specializing in the anatomical sciences and anatomical research. At this time in the South African system, physician-trained anatomists were integrated into the clinical academic establishment. Dr. Singer's tales of his early years discussed his role as an anatomical consultant in clinical cases and his participation as an anatomist in medical rounds. The Cape Town years were also filled with much love of sport for Singer. His powerful build led to many active years playing rugby, where he was nicknamed “the Rhino,” not only for his physical strength but for his classical facial profile. Dr. Singer and his family emigrated to the United States from South Africa in 1962, in large part because his and his wife's active opposition to the policies of the apartheid regime had made life there untenable. Soon thereafter, he became the chair of the Department of Anatomy at the University of Chicago, a position from which he was able to exert a lasting influence on the development of the anatomical sciences in the United States. Dr. Singer's influence was most strongly felt in the development of the modern teaching of gross anatomy, to which he connected modern research training in biological anthropology, organismal biology, evolution, and biomechanics. The legacy of this program has created outstanding teaching and research today in the anatomical sciences at universities throughout the United States and the world. This legacy is essential in the modern era, when many scientists are struggling to create modern tools for morphological investigation to complement genomic approaches. Dr. Singer trained those capable of appreciating the subtleties of morphological structure and variation. He also taught gross anatomy as an important, modern, and living science, which is intimately connected with our understanding of the clinical sciences, the history of life, functional and structural biology, and human variation and evolution. Singer's broad research interests in human prehistory and evolution, human development and variation, and more generally in mammalian biology and evolution created an insightful intellectual framework for the teaching of gross anatomy to several generations of medical and graduate students over a career extending 50 plus years. He was well known at the University of Chicago for his summer gross anatomy course, which he only recently discontinued teaching. This course was directed to the Medical Sciences Training Program (MSTP) and graduate students at the University of Chicago and was taught in the classic British style with continual table-side demonstrations and verbal examinations. Because of Dr. Singer's integrity, honesty, compassion, and wit, this course remains a fond memory to many former students, who have gone on to eminent careers in various branches of medicine and biological science research. A highlight of this course was the end of the course party at Dr. Singer's home, where students were delighted with Singer's wide-ranging and always fascinating stories and Mrs. Singer's outstanding cooking, while surrounded with a unique collection of colonial-era South African furniture, art, and artifacts. Dinner ended with fine port and a cigar. Also, many former students fondly remember the sherry hours that Dr. Singer hosted on Friday afternoons in his laboratory, which always included witty and lively discussions about significant figures in the history of the anatomical sciences and sometimes degenerated into contests over arcane anatomical terminology between those professors with the more extensive anatomical training of the 1940s. Truly, this is a world that will not be seen again. Dr. Singer guarded the heritage of anatomical research at the University of Chicago. Chicago's Anatomy Department was arguably the greatest in the United States in the earlier and middle years of the 20th century. In particular, the department was known for great discoveries in the field of histology and cell biology. One of the best descriptions of this world can be found in Singer's own memoir of the great scientist and histologist, William Bloom (Biographical Memoirs, 1993). At the time Singer became chair at Chicago, Bloom was still an active member of the department, retiring in 1969. Bloom and Singer were not only friends and colleagues but shared a closeness forged through a common world view. Just as Singer had fought for human rights in South Africa, so was Bloom instrumental in rescuing prominent anatomists from Hitler's Europe and bringing them to Chicago. Among these scientists were Franz Weidenreich, the discoverer of the Peking Man fossils, who, like Singer, was an anatomist with a passion for gross morphology, histology, and physical anthropology. Just as Bloom had helped to bring Singer to Chicago, so Bloom had come through a connection with the famed anatomist and scientist of an earlier generation, Robert Bensley. During his years at Chicago, Singer occupied the chair named in Bensley's honor. Dr. Singer maintained a global network of associates in his various research fields, held numerous positions in professional organizations, and addressed scientific conferences all over the world. He held coappointments at the University of Chicago in the Department of Anthropology and the Committee on African and African-American Studies. He did much work on international committees in the revision of modern anatomical terminology. His work continues to receive honors up to the present day. His recent Encyclopedia of Paleontology (1999) won the 2001 Mary B. Ansari Award from the Geoscience Information Society for the “best published reference work” and in the fall of 2005 he received the Spectemur Agendo Award from the South African College High Schools in Cape Town. Dr. Singer remained active in research and was working to complete several papers and monographs at the time of his death. Dr. Singer is survived by his loving wife of 55 years, Shirley Singer; children Hazel Singer (John Griffiths), Eric Singer, Sonia Nyberg (Jim), and Charles Singer (Katie). His grandchildren gave him much pleasure: Jennifer Griffiths, Graham Griffiths, Ben Singer, the late Ariel Singer, and Marc Singer. His loving brother, Martin Singer, still resides in South Africa.
The central role that human dissection has long held in clinical education is being reevaluated in many institutions. Despite the impression that many institutions are abandoning dissection, very few have and most of those have reinstated dissection within a few years. What are the inherent qualities that lead institutions back to dissection? In our efforts to redesign a shortened dissection course, our consultations with a broad range of clinicians lead us to understand how the rhythms of clinical practice are modeled and developed in the small-group setting of the dissection laboratory. Following further consultation with colleagues who have experimented with different models of anatomy instruction, we discuss three themes in support of dissection. First, problem-solving in the dissection laboratory develops the habits-of-mind of clinical practice. Second, relating dissection to imaging modalities develops the spatial reasoning skills needed to understand computer simulations, interpret imaging data, and interact with surgeons, radiologists, and patients. Third, the human face of dissection fosters self-reflection and integration of the cognitive and affective skills required for medical practice. Through group process, the collaborative effort of dissection teams develops essential of attributes of clinical professionalism.
A major theme in Darwinian evolutionary theory is that novelty arises through a process in which organisms and their features are gradually transformed. Morgan provided Darwinism and the evolutionary synthesis with the idea that minor mutations produce the minuscule morphological variations on which natural selection then acts, and that, although mutation is random, once a process of gradual genetic modification begins, it becomes directional and leads to morphological, and consequently organismal, transformation. In contrast, studies on the role of cell membrane physical states in regulating the expression of stress proteins in response to environmental shifts indicate the existence of a downstream mechanism that prevents or corrects genetic change (i.e., maintains "DNA homeostasis"). However, episodic spikes in various kinds of environmental stress that exceed an organism's cells' thresholds for expression of proper amounts of stress proteins responsible for protein folding (including stochastically occurring DNA repair) may increase mutation rate and genetic change, which in turn will alter the pattern of gene expression during development. If severe stress disrupts DNA homeostasis during meiosis (gametogenesis), this could allow for the appearance of significant mutational events that would otherwise be corrected or suppressed. In evolutionary terms, extreme spikes in environmental stress make possible the emergence of new genetic and consequent developmental and epigenetic networks, and thus also the emergence of potentially new morphological traits, without invoking geographic or other isolating mechanisms.
Teaching anatomy by dissection is under considerable pressure to evolve and/or even be eliminated, and curricular hours in the dissection laboratory are decreasing. As a possible means of easing this pressure, an online interactive anatomy program has been created to enhance the dissection experience, observational learning, and three-dimensional comprehension of human anatomy. An assessment was made of the utility of the program in preparing students for dissection laboratories and for examinations. The efficacy of the application was evaluated by first-year students and faculty with pre- and post-use surveys in anatomy courses at three medical schools. It was found that students felt better prepared if they utilized the Web site prior to their dissection laboratory, and faculty reported spending less time explaining basic concepts or techniques. It is concluded that a comprehensive online program significantly enhances the quality and efficiency of instruction in human anatomy in the dissection laboratory and could prove to be a useful tool at other institutions.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) and laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) are sibling diseases that are a modern-day plague. Millions of Americans suffer from their sequelae, ranging from subtle annoyances to life-threatening illnesses such as asthma, sleep apnea, and cancer. Indeed, the recognized prevalence of GERD alone has increased threefold throughout the 1990s. Knowledge of the precise etiologies for GERD and LPR is becoming essential for proper treatment. This review focuses on the anatomical, physiological, neurobiological, and cellular aspects of these diseases. By definition, gastroesophageal reflux (GER) is the passage of gastric contents into the esophagus; when excessive and damaging to the esophageal mucosa, GERD results. Reflux that advances to the laryngopharynx and, subsequently, to other regions of the head and neck such as the larynx, oral cavity, nasopharynx, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and even middle ear results in LPR. While GERD has long been identified as a source of esophageal disease, LPR has only recently been implicated in causing head and neck problems. Recent research has identified four anatomical/physiological "barriers" that serve as guardians to prevent the cranial incursion of reflux: the gastroesophageal junction, esophageal motor function and acid clearance, the upper esophageal sphincter, and pharyngeal and laryngeal mucosal resistance. Sequential failure of all four barriers is necessary to produce LPR. While it has become apparent that GER must precede both GERD and LPR, the head and neck distribution of the latter clearly separates these diseases as distinct entities warranting specialized focus and treatment.
Brodmann's areas 44 and 45 in the human brain, also known as Broca's area, have long been associated with language functions, especially in the left hemisphere. However, the precise role Broca's area plays in human language has not been established with certainty. Broca's area has homologs in the great apes and in area F5 in monkeys, which suggests that its original function was not linguistic at all. In fact, great ape and hominid brains show very similar left-over-right asymmetries in Broca's area homologs as well as in other areas, such as homologs to Wernicke's area, that are normally associated with language in modern humans. Moreover, the so-called mirror neurons are located in Broca's area in great apes and area F5 in monkeys, which seem to provide a representation of cause and effect in a primate's environment, particularly its social environment. Humans appear to have these mirror neurons in Broca's area as well. Similarly, genetic evidence related to the FOXP2 gene implicates Broca's area in linguistic function and dysfunction, but the gene itself is a highly conserved developmental gene in vertebrates and is shared with only two or three differences between humans and great apes, five between humans and mice, and eight between humans and songbirds. Taking neurons and portions of the brain as discrete computational segments in the sense of constituting specific Turing machines, this evidence points to a predictive motor and conceptual function for Broca's area in primates, especially for social concepts. In human language, this is consistent with evidence from typological and cognitive linguistics.
The new medicine program at the University of New South Wales employs scenario-based learning with vertically integrated classes of year 1 and year 2 students, as well as horizontally integrated teaching with no discipline-specific courses. Coinciding with its introduction, we undertook comprehensive revision of the approach to teaching microscopic anatomy and pathology. We designed practical classes around virtual slides, which are high-magnification digital images of tissue sections stored in a multiresolution file format, viewable in a Web browser in a manner closely simulating conventional microscopy. In these classes, we integrated the teaching of histology and histopathology, introducing students to the microscopic features of tissues and organs, and giving them the opportunity to compare and contrast the normal with the abnormal in various disease states. Members of academic staff from both anatomy and pathology were present to promote discussion and respond to questions. Worksheets defined learning objectives and provided clinical cases as contexts for learning in each class. Evaluation revealed that students strongly supported the integrated approach. The efficiency of the teaching method meant that it was possible to work through 5-8 virtual slides per 2-hr class without difficulty. Students displayed considerable initiative in exploring the histological features of tissues, identifying the changes in various pathological states, and recognizing their relationship to clinical manifestations. We believe that the approach we have developed should help to minimize the potential adverse impact of curriculum reform on the teaching of morphology, while ensuring that learning remains both meaningful and interesting.
Reasoning about anatomy shares historical scientific roots with formal logic and artificial intelligence. With advances in computer-based intelligent programming, high-level biological structural knowledge may be exploited directly for biomedical research, clinical tasks, and educational applications. We consider the special nature of anatomical domain knowledge, emphasizing the complex concepts and semantics that must be represented in the development of ontologies, formally structured databases of biological information. We review the evolution of the fundamental scientific principles of logic and artificial intelligence needed for building machines that can make use of anatomical knowledge. We look at methods for compiling ontologies and compare the structural designs of the Foundational Model of Anatomy and Open GALEN ontologies. We further consider issues related to mapping developing anatomy resources with other biological ontologies in genomics, proteomics, and physiology. Although early results are promising, considerable resources and continuing effort must be committed to completing and extending anatomical ontologies for the ultimate success of computer-based anatomical reasoning. Anat Rec (Part B: New Anat) 289B:72-84, 2006. (c) 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
Being an AAA student member has just gotten twice as easy because AAA has cut student dues to half the price! In a move designed to bring more students into the society and retain them as members through their postdoctoral and early faculty years, AAA's Board of Directors has approved a plan to reduce student dues by 50% beginning in 2007, lower dues for postdocs, and extend “early career” eligibility from 1 to 7 years. The dues changes were proposed by a task force headed by AAA Secretary-Treasurer Rick Drake; other task force members included David Burr, Matt Velkey, and Judy Venuti. Drake believes that the low $30 rate for students might encourage department chairs or senior faculty to provide a gift of AAA membership for their graduate students. In fact, AAA is now offering gift cards, enabling advisors, mentors, and department chairs to give their students a great birthday gift, stocking stuffing, or reward that truly keeps on giving. For less than the cost of 10 grande lattes, students can enjoy all that AAA has to offer, including student travel awards of $250 or $350. Any smart department chair would call that a “no brainer”! Reduction in student dues by 50% to $30 with membership including online, not print, access to the selected AAA journal. Eligibility for this category could be maintained until the individual receives his/her degree or for 7 years, whichever is less. Establishment of a new dues category for postdoctoral/nonfaculty positions with membership including online, not print, access to the selected AAA journal. Eligibility for this category could be maintained until the individual obtains a faculty position or for 5 years, whichever is less. Dues for 2007 will be $45; postdocs now pay $60. Extension of “early career” eligibility from 1 to 7 years. Individuals could qualify for this category until promoted to an associate professor or for 7 years, whichever comes first. “Early career” dues for 2007 will be $90. Elimination of the “international member” category so foreign members pay the same dues and receive the same benefits as regular members. AAA pays dues to FASEB for each regular, international, and postdoctoral member and pays its publisher, John Wiley & Sons, varying fees for each member who subscribes to the print or online editions of The Anatomical Record or Developmental Dynamics. While the new student and postdoc rates will not cover these costs, the AAA Board views these dues reductions as an investment in AAA and in anatomy as a discipline.
Diogenes of Apollonia was a pre-Socratic philosopher who lived in the 5th century BC and provided the first systematic and fairly truthful account of blood vessel architecture in man. This article presents Diogenes' report and comments on the most significant passages of his vascular description. It also discusses the magnitude of Diogenes' contribution to shape early theories regarding blood vessel physiology. What emerges from this portrait is the figure of an eclectic spirit, who remarkably influenced the development of leading concepts in vascular anatomy and biology.
Owing to competition for faculty time among the three major missions of today's academic medical centers, as well as the rapid development of computer-based instructional technologies, laboratory instruction in medical schools in the United States has been undergoing dramatic change. In order to determine recent trends in histology laboratory instruction at U.S. medical schools, a detailed Web survey was administered to histology course directors, with about two-thirds of schools responding. The survey was designed to identify trends in the number of hours of histology laboratory instruction that each medical student receives, the amount of faculty effort devoted to histology laboratory instruction, and the use of various computer-based technologies (including virtual microscopy and virtual slides) in histology laboratory instruction. Consistent with the long-term trend of declining total laboratory teaching hours in U.S. medical schools, there is an ongoing reduction in the number of hours of faculty-directed histology laboratory instruction that each medical student receives, with a concomitant reduction in hours of faculty time devoted to histology laboratory instruction. In terms of the tools used in the histology laboratory, there has been a dramatic increase in the use of various forms of computer-aided instruction (including virtual slides). The large increase in the number of schools using computer-aided instruction has not been accompanied by an equivalent decrease in the number of schools that utilize microscopes and glass slides. Rather, the clear trend has been toward a blending of the new computer-based instructional technologies with the long-standing use of microscopes and glass slides.
The Henry Gray Award is the most prestigious award given by the American Association of Anatomists (AAA). This award is presented annually to an AAA member in recognition of his or her unique and meritorious contributions to, and achievements in, the anatomical sciences. The Henry Gray laureate for 2005 is Dr. Roger R. Markwald of the Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy of the Medical University of South Carolina. Dr. Roger R. Markwald Dr. Markwald received his BS (with honors) in 1965 from the California State Polytechnic University. He then went to Colorado State University to begin his graduate studies, which focused on the male reproductive system in the mule deer. He received his MS in 1968 and his PhD in 1969 from Colorado State. In some cases, a career can pass through a full circle. In some respects, this is certainly the case for Dr. Markwald. He was a postdoctoral associate (1969–1970) at the Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC) and became an assistant professor of anatomy at the same institution in 1970. From 1974 to 1975, he was a research affiliate in the Cardiology Section at MUSC and he became an associate professor in the Department of Anatomy in 1974. He then took a position in the Department of Anatomy at Texas Tech University Health Science Center in 1975, where he served as associate professor until 1980. He was promoted to professor at Texas Tech in 1981 and served as acting chairman of the Department of Anatomy from 1981 to 1982. In 1984, Dr. Markwald became professor and chairman of Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy at the Medical College of Wisconsin; he served in this position until 1992. In 1992, he was invited to become professor and chairman of the Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy at the Medical University of South Carolina, the institution where he began his academic career. At the same time (1992), he was appointed director of the Cardiovascular Developmental Center at MUSC. He is also professor in the Department of Pediatrics and, since 1997, scientific director of Cardiovascular Tissue Technologies Incorporation in Charleston, South Carolina. He was also director of the Multidisciplinary Research Program in Developmental Pediatric Cardiology from 1996 to 1998. While his graduate research was concerned with the male reproductive system, he shifted his research emphasis to the cardiovascular system as a young faculty member at MUSC and has conducted research in this area ever since. Dr. Markwald's ultrastructural studies characterized embryonic myocardial cell myofibrillar organization. He used histochemical and ultrastructural techniques to visualize and analyze extracellular components of the developing heart, especially those concerned with the formation of septal and valvular structures; these are now referred to as epithelial-mesenchymal transformations. In more recent years, Dr. Markwald has expanded his research by elucidating the molecular biological factors that modulate myocardial cells and heart development. Dr. Markwald, along with his research team, is working on a variety of aspects of cardiac development, including molecular controls of epithelial-mesenchymal transformations during heart valve development, factors that influence specifics of the architecture and laterality of the heart, and development of the heart conduction system. His most recent research on tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, and the use of stem cells in the treatment of cardiac injury or disease, holds great promise. Dr. Markwald has published over 150 research papers and book chapters. His papers have appeared in well-known and highly regarded journals, including Anatomical Record, Developmental Biology, Journal of Molecular and Cellular Cardiology, Developmental Dynamics, Mechanisms of Development, and Journal of Histochemistry and Cytochemistry. Dr. Markwald's research efforts have been continuously supported for almost 35 years. While this has been primarily through grants from the National Institutes of Health, he has also received research support from the Texas Heart Association, the American Heart Association, and he also received an NIH MERIT Award from the National Heart and Lung Institute for the period of 1987–1997. His grants have been major awards for topics on extracellular matrix, valvular and septal morphogenesis, and a large grant for cardiovascular disease. A further testimony to Dr. Markwald's research experience and reputation is the fact that he has been invited to serve on numerous National Advisory Committees, including the National Science Foundation, a number of NIH Cell Biology Study Sessions, the National Board of Medical Examiners, and he has served as a consultant to numerous divisions of the NIH. Dr. Markwald has also been invited to present literally hundreds of lectures at national and international symposia or conferences at numerous medical centers, universities, and colleges throughout the United States. His international presentations have been at venues as diverse as Switzerland, Japan, the Czech Republic, Italy, the United Kingdom, and Mexico. He has given presentations at many of the major medical centers in the United States. Dr. Markwald's service to the institutions at which he has held appointments has been exemplary. In his early years at MUSC, he was the director of the Department Graduate Program, served on the Graduate Council, and was a member of other medical center committees such as Graduate School Evaluation Committee, Long Range Planning and Development Committee, and the Urology Search Committee (as chairman). During his years at Texas Tech, he served on numerous committees. He was also a member of the board of directors of the Panhandle Area Cancer Council, served on the President's Task Force on Health Related Research, was chairman of the Faculty Research Committee, and served as an associate chairperson of the Department from 1977 to 1984. During his years at Wisconsin, Dr. Markwald served as chairman of the Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy and on numerous committees befitting his position as chair of the department. As noted above, he is currently chairman of the Department of Cellular Biology and Anatomy at MUSC and serves also on a number of committees related to his position as chairman and his position as director of the Cardiovascular Developmental Biology Center. In spite of significant and committed research responsibility, Dr. Markwald has always found time to teach dental and medical students and to be deeply involved in the training of graduate students and the supervision of postdoctoral research associates. His teaching emphasis has been in histology for both dental and medical students, in medical embryology, gross anatomy, cell biology, and, of course, he has given electives in advance cell biology. He was course director for histology for 7 years and for embryology for 10 years. In addition, Dr. Markwald has been the major professor for 16 PhD or MS students and has supervised 12 postdoctoral associates. As an important adjunct to his research and scholarly efforts, Dr. Markwald serves in a wide range of editorial responsibilities. He is the current editor in chief (since 1998) of Anatomical Record, the series editor for Cardiovascular Morphogenesis, and serves as a member of the editorial boards of Tissue and Cell Research, Circulation Research, and the journal Endothelium. In addition, he is a regular manuscript reviewer for a variety of journals, including Development, Journal of Cell Biology, Nature, Science, Circulation, and Journal of Molecular Cardiology. These responsibilities speak clearly to Dr. Markwald's outstanding reputation in the international research community. Dr. Markwald's service to the AAA has reflected his long-time interests in the organization and his dedication to the anatomical sciences as broadly defined. He has served on numerous committees in the organization, has been a member of the Executive Committee, and was president of the AAA from 1989 to 1990. In addition, Dr. Markwald was president of the American Association of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Neuroscience Chairs. Dr. Markwald's research has been published in the journals of the AAA, he has educated graduate students that have gone on to hold responsible positions in the field of anatomy as members of the AAA, and he has mentored individuals who have gone on to become department chairs. Dr. Markwald has received a number of awards, honors, and special recognitions over the years. He has been recognized 14 times for outstanding teaching at the institutions at which he has held an academic appointment and received the President's Award for Excellence in Teaching from Texas Tech. He also held an NIH Research Career Development Award and a Lyndon Baines Johnson Research Award for his work in cardiovascular biology. In addition to the AAA, Dr. Markwald is a member of professional organizations that include Sigma Xi, International Society for Developmental Biology, International Society for Cell Biology, and the Morphogenesis Club of the AAA. Dr. Roger Markwald has made many important contributions to the fields of anatomy and molecular cell biology through his insightful studies of structure, function, and development of the heart. He has dedicated energy to the association and has worked toward its goals. The AAA has recognized Dr. Roger R. Markwald as a most worthy recipient of the Henry Gray Award for 2005.
“The sound is what I remember,” my dad said. “The horrible, frightening, all engulfing sound. I can still hear the windows rattle, the shades flap and the beds creak. I would wait for what seemed forever for the quiet to return. Oh, how I prayed for the sound to stop hitting me!” I can still hear in my mind's ear my late father's words describing his most vivid memories of his childhood in Paris during the First World War or, as he called it, “the Great War.” I wrote down all his words for a school report when I was a little boy—treasuring them today so many years after his death—as I was enraptured even then by how vividly he remembered the sounds of his youth. “Big Bertha was what we called the Beast, the great cannon that shelled us relentlessly,” my father recalled, “and her pounding was the lullaby we had to fall asleep to each and every night.” I can remember seeing his crisp blue-green eyes moisten as he spoke. How remarkable, I remember thinking, that my dad could remember sounds decades after he heard them. How did he recall them? Could he really still hear them, as he professed, or was he just telling me another tale of a past world that I would never know? Where did those sounds “live,” and how could they make him so sad, so obviously in pain? Sounds, and how we grasp them, transmit them, integrate, perceive, store, and recall them—how we hear them—is a subject of continuing fascination and exploration. Be it the harsh sounds that pummeled my father's memory, the majesty of musical notes, the gentle rustle of autumn leaves, or the tones and fluctuations of everyday speech, the nature of sounds and the anatomy that enables us to appreciate them have fascinated scientists since the time of the Egyptians. Indeed, many of our great anatomical forefathers have heard the siren call of ear research. From Vesalius's descriptions of the ossicles in the sacred Fabrica and Fallopius's detailing of the tympanic membrane in the 16th century, to Scarpa's discovery of the membranous labyrinth in the 18th century and Corti's insights on the structure of the cochlea itself in the 19th century, our ilk has dissected and studied every available bone, membrane, hair cell, and neuron. While much has obviously been learned, many mysteries still elude us. The excitement and the hunt to track down the anatomy underlying the world of hearing is the focus of the April 2006 special issue of the Anatomical Record entitled “Structure and Function in the Auditory System: From Cochlea to Cortex.” The issue is guest-edited by David R. Friedland, a neuroanatomist and otolaryngologist, whose duality of experiences and background have given him a special perch from which he has been able to appreciate the cutting edge science in his field and its potential applications to medicine and surgery. One of his expressed intentions in doing such an issue was to put before scientists from different parts of the auditory sciences world—many of whom are not always familiar with related though differing approaches—the exciting anatomical advancements in the broader field. The result has been a most impressive presentation of the state-of-the-art hearing research that takes us literally from the twists and turns of the cochlea to the deepest crevices of the brain. This issue is impressive both in scope and in showcasing the robust methods employed by auditory researchers today. Indeed, the range of papers includes those that correlate physiological function with gross anatomy to understand the developmental and evolutionary relationship of the vestibular labyrinth and cochlea; those using clinical scenarios to gain insight into tracing the evolution of the inner ear; a number of studies using molecular approaches to probe the underlying genetic contributions to auditory structure, function, and disease; and an array of neuronal studies that focus on the environment of the inner ear and its hair cells, specific cells in brainstem nuclei, communications from the inner ear to brain regions, and interconnections between anatomical portions of the brain such as the cortex and brainstem. The issue also highlights the continuing power of traditional anatomical approaches and the potency of new visualization modes. For example, elegant classic double labeling and tract tracing approaches explore the structural organization in the cochlear nucleus, while the power of new techniques such as functional neuroimaging (fMRI) are employed in fascinating explorations of music as a tool to understand cortical processing and, in turn, probe the general topic of how cortical hearing centers relate to traditionally held language areas. While I do not know if I can really still “hear” the tones and undulations of my father's voice, at least we are getting closer to understanding how I heard them originally and where their memories might lie. Indeed, this excellent special issue will bring us ever nearer to unraveling the mysteries that lie in the cochlea and its liaisons to the world within the brain. This issue of the Anatomical Record is available online at http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/jhome/28243.
The cervical vertebral column bears or balances the weight of the head supported by the nuchal muscles that partly originate from the cervical vertebrae. The position of the head relative to the vertebral column, and consequently locomotion and posture behavior, could thus be associated with the form of the cervical vertebrae. In spite of this assumption and some empirical indications along these lines, primate vertebral morphologies have been reported to be very similar and not clearly related to locomotion. We therefore study the relationship between the morphology of the first cervical vertebra, the atlas, and the locomotion pattern within primates using a geometric morphometric approach. Our analysis is based on a total of 116 vertebrae of adult Homo sapiens, Gorilla gorilla, Pan troglodytes, Pongo pygmaeus, Hylobates lar, Macaca mulatta, Papio hamadryas, Ateles geoffroyi, and Alouatta palliata. On each atlas, 56 landmarks were digitized and superimposed by Procrustes registration. The resulting shape variables were analyzed by principal component analysis, multivariate regression, and partial least-squares analysis. We found that the nine primate species differ clearly in their atlas morphology and that allometric shape change is distinct between the nonhuman primates and Homo sapiens. We could further identify morphological features that relate to the species' locomotion pattern. Human atlas shape, however, cannot be predicted by an extrapolation of the nonhuman primate model. This implies that either the primate atlas is generalized enough to allow bipedal locomotion or else the human atlas morphology is a unique adaptation different from that in the more orthograde nonhuman primates.
