ABSTRACT The spotted lanternfly ( Lycorma delicatula ) is an invasive alien species that has rapidly expanded across South Korea since its population began to surge in 2006. This study analyzed the spatiotemporal distribution patterns and environmental drivers of the species following its nationwide expansion, utilizing national survey data from 2016 to 2024, which were classified into three consecutive periods, and applying Local Moran's I and generalized additive models (GAM). Local Moran's I analysis revealed a spatial transition where high‐high clusters shifted approximately twice as far from major grape‐growing areas (21.88–40.59 km) between the first period (2016–2018) and the subsequent periods (2019–2024). This shift suggests that intensive, agriculture‐centered pest control may temporarily displace populations to the periphery. GAM results showed that the models for the second and third periods explained over 60% of the deviance, with climatic variables such as temperature and precipitation emerging as highly significant predictors. Furthermore, an interaction analysis between human population size and distance to major vineyards indicated that high occurrence probabilities were maintained in densely populated areas near vineyards. These findings suggest that after intensive control is followed by spatial dispersal, populations can re‐establish and stabilize in new habitats mediated by climatic suitability and urban connectivity. Future management strategies should transition from localized control to a broad‐scale response system that integrates climatic suitability with human‐spatial networks.
ABSTRACT Mating status is a key determinant of reproductive physiology in annual bumble bee queens, but its tissue‐specific molecular effects after overwintering remain unclear. We analyzed RNA‐seq data from the brains and ovaries of mated Bombus terrestris queens (BtQ) and unmated (virgin) queens (Bv) using tissue‐wise combined biological replicates ( n = 2 per mating‐status group). Differentially expressed genes were identified with edgeR, and functional patterns were evaluated by Gene Ontology and KEGG enrichment analyses. Global clustering separated samples primarily by tissue and secondarily by mating status, indicating that tissue identity was the dominant source of transcriptomic variation. In the brain, BtQ‐upregulated genes were enriched for DNA biosynthetic process, DNA polymerase complex, spliceosome, and rRNA‐processing‐related categories, whereas Bv‐upregulated genes were associated with extracellular region, serine‐type endopeptidase inhibitor activity, membrane, transmembrane transport, and oxidoreductase activity. In the ovary, Bv‐upregulated genes were enriched for nucleic acid binding, homologous recombination‐mediated double‐strand break repair, tRNA methylation, germ‐line stem cell division, and transposable element silencing. By contrast, BtQ‐upregulated ovarian genes were enriched for heme binding, DNA biosynthetic process, monooxygenase activity, plasma membrane, oxidoreductase activity, DNA polymerase complex, defense response to bacterium, extracellular region, and iron ion binding, together with additional lipid‐ and metabolism‐related categories. Overall, mating status reshaped overwintering brain and ovary transcriptomes through distinct tissue‐specific programs, with the ovary showing the clearest contrast between a maintenance‐oriented state in unmated queens and a biosynthetic, redox, membrane‐associated, immune, and metabolic state in mated queens.
ABSTRACT Whether insect gut‐associated microbial communities are structured by host identity or diet remains unresolved. Using a common‐garden design, we reared two lepidopteran pests of contrasting host breadth, the polyphagous Spodoptera exigua (Hübner) and the Lamiaceae‐associated Pyrausta panopealis (Walker), exclusively on perilla ( Perilla frutescens [L.] Britton var. frutescens ), and characterized frass‐associated bacterial communities by 16S rRNA metabarcoding of three pooled replicates per species (240 larvae). The two hosts showed apparent separation in community composition (PERMANOVA R 2 = 0.857), which did not reach conventional significance (exact‐permutation p = 0.100, the smallest value attainable with three replicates per group). Alpha diversity did not differ significantly (Wilcoxon rank sum, all p ≥ 0.10), although S. exigua showed numerically greater richness (median observed ASVs: 55 vs. 25) and P. panopealis showed higher evenness. Because the two species differ in taxonomic family, body size, and life history beyond host breadth, these patterns reflect a host species–associated difference under a shared diet rather than general evidence that dietary breadth shapes microbiome architecture. To our knowledge, this is the first description of the bacterial community of P. panopealis , and shows that two co‐occurring pests reared on an identical diet were numerically dominated by mutually near‐exclusive genera ( Enterococcus , 72.2%, in S. exigua vs. Enterobacter , 71.8%, in P. panopealis ), with complete rank separation in five genera. Species‐level names are descriptive because the V3–V4 region gives limited subgenus resolution. These patterns are consistent with host‐associated filtering contributing to frass community assembly, a hypothesis warranting confirmation with larger samples and additional diet treatments.
ABSTRACT Digital‐twin (DT) research has expanded rapidly across engineering and cyber‐physical systems, yet explicit adoption and consolidation of DT concepts in entomology remain limited and fragmented. This study addresses this imbalance through a two‐track synthesis. A Web of Science–based bibliometric analysis of the global DT domain from 2014 to 2025 establishes an external benchmark for growth dynamics, thematic structure, and prevailing implementation emphases. Because insect‐specific DT publications remain too sparse for stable bibliometric inference, entomological evidence is organized through a scale‐aware conceptual framework spanning individual, colony, and population or ecosystem levels, combined with a four‐level maturity scheme that distinguishes monitoring, shadowing, predictive, and intervening systems. The maturity lens clarifies that operational progress depends less on increasing model complexity than on strengthening data–model coupling and decision relevance. The transition from monitoring to shadowing requires explicit observation‐process models that map imperfect measurements to latent biological states while accounting for detection bias, missingness, and measurement error. The transition from shadowing to prediction is constrained by structural model error and uncertainty propagation under nonstationary environmental forcing. Movement toward intervention maturity requires an explicit decision layer that formalizes trade‐offs among effectiveness, cost, regulatory constraints, and ecological side effects. Representative case studies demonstrate how operational coherence can be achieved under scale‐specific constraints, while also revealing dominant bottlenecks including external validity at the individual scale, identifiability at the colony scale, and effort–abundance confounding at landscape scales. The resulting framework provides criteria for cumulative comparison and a roadmap for operationally coherent insect DTs that support risk‐aware decision making.
ABSTRACT Malaria is one of the most important vector‐borne diseases transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes. A total of 81 Anopheles species have been reported in Thailand, of which seven are confirmed human malaria vectors. Among these vector species, Anopheles baimaii Sallum & Peyton and Anopheles dirus Peyton & Harrison, which belong to the Leucosphyrus Group, play key roles in outdoor transmission due to their association with forested areas, making them particularly difficult to control. Understanding the biology and ecology of these species and other species within the Leucosphyrus Groups is critical because their high vector competence and specialized behaviors sustain residual transmission in “pocket foci” and facilitate the spillover of nonhuman primate malaria, which poses a major challenge to national elimination goals. Hence, traditional indoor–based interventions cannot effectively control these exophagic vectors and underscore the necessity of an integrated One Health approach incorporating public health, wildlife management, and environmental conservation to effectively manage zoonotic risks and sustain malaria elimination in Thailand and surrounding countries.
ABSTRACT Insects employ flexible metabolic strategies to cope with acute environmental stress. This study investigates how different stressors, including physical, mechanical, and thermal, influence carbohydrate metabolism in Galleria mellonella larvae. Trehalose and glucose levels were measured in hemolymph, together with trehalose, glycogen, and glucose levels in fat body tissues, at 4 and 12 h poststress to assess time‐ and tissue‐specific metabolic shifts. All stress types triggered a rapid decline in hemolymph trehalose, emphasizing its role as a key early energy buffer under stress. Bead injection induced the most pronounced and persistent metabolic alterations, including sustained glucose elevation, suggesting increased metabolic demand under prolonged internal stress. In contrast, mechanical and thermal stressors caused largely transient changes, with partial recovery of carbohydrate levels by 12 h. Fat body responses varied with stressor type; thermal and mechanical stress led to early glycogen depletion, whereas bead injection caused minimal glycogen utilization but promoted local trehalose accumulation, indicating differential energy mobilization strategies. Overall, G. mellonella exhibited a stressor‐specific and temporally structured metabolic program characterized by early trehalose mobilization, followed by glycogen‐associated metabolic adjustments. These results highlight the central role of the fat body in metabolic regulation and support the utility of G. mellonella as a model organism for studying insect physiology and energy homeostasis.
ABSTRACT Many insects harbor diverse gut microbiota, but the factors shaping these microbial communities remain insufficiently explored. To elucidate the structure and functions of gut microbiota in the scale insect Coronaproctus castanopsis and identify key influencing factors, we performed metagenomic sequencing on three scale insect species ( C. castanopsis , Icerya purchasi , and Lecanodiaspis baculifera ) with distinct dietary preferences. Results revealed bacteria dominating the microbial community (88.52%), primarily represented by phyla Bacteroidota and Pseudomonadota . At the genus level, Candidatus Walczuchella (55.47%) and Wolbachia (28.63%) were predominant. KEGG functional annotation showed that microbial genes were mainly associated with carbohydrate metabolism (335 genes), amino acid metabolism (249 genes), and membrane transport. Notably, gut microbiota diversity varied among samples, with Shannon indices ranging from 0.48 in nymph‐stage C. castanopsis to 1.32 in adult‐stage C. castanopsis . Additionally, specialized feeder C. castanopsis had fewer functional genes compared to generalist feeder I. purchasi (1790 fewer genes) and similarly feeding L. baculifera (200 fewer genes). These findings suggest that diet is an important factor associated with gut microbiota composition and gene functions in scale insects, although host phylogeny, developmental stage, and environmental factors may also contribute, offering novel insights into host–microbe interactions.
The growing demand for sustainable protein sources has accelerated interest in utilizing insects to convert organic waste into high‐value nutrients for feed and food production. Insects, particularly black soldier fly larvae, mealworms, crickets, and houseflies, efficiently bioconvert agricultural, food, and industrial by‐products into nutrient‐rich biomass containing proteins, essential amino acids, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. In animal nutrition, insect‐derived meals and oils serve as eco‐friendly alternatives to fishmeal and soybean meal, enhancing growth performance, gut health, and feed efficiency in aquaculture, poultry, swine, and pet food sectors. For human consumption, edible insects provide protein‐rich flours and functional compounds with the potential to address malnutrition while reducing environmental footprints. Additionally, insect farming supports circular economy principles by closing nutrient loops, reducing waste, and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. Regulatory approval and consumer acceptance are expanding, highlighting insects as a promising pathway toward resilient, resource‐efficient, and sustainable food systems worldwide. The safety of insects employed in the production of feed and food should be a priority in order to be successfully implemented in the contemporary supply chains. Among the key safety consideration points are microbial contamination, chemical residues, allergenicity, and environmental risk related to the rearing conditions. The insect‐based ingredients can be safely and reliably made through good quality hygiene, controlled substrates, and processing to serve global feed and food systems.
Black soldier fly (BSF) larvae have attracted significant attention as an innovative and sustainable solution for biodegradation and reduction of organic waste. Importantly, their utilization offers an ecologically viable and efficient strategy for waste management, especially in enhancing the composting process. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of third instar BSF larvae on the biodegradation and physicochemical attributes of pig manure and sawdust mixtures at varying ratios to identify the optimal conditions for improving compost quality. In terms of biodegradability, BSF (0.5 kg) larvae cultivated on a 1:1 pig manure (2.5 kg) to sawdust (2.5 kg) ratio (T2 group) did not exhibit superior biodegradation ability compared with the control and T1 (a mixture of 3 kg pig manure and 2 kg sawdust + 0.5 kg BSF larvae) groups. However, the T2 group demonstrated considerable potential as a supplementary substrate for rearing BSF larvae, yielding notable improvements in composting efficiency. In addition, key parameters, such as total carbon and nitrogen contents, fiber component, and C:N ratio were more favorable in the T2 group than in the other groups. Importantly, the C:N ratio (15) and low pH of the T2 group were consistent with the requirements for effective composting. Collectively, these results highlight the importance of optimizing substrate composition for effective composting. However, further research is required to explore the mechanisms driving waste reduction and identify the optimal levels of fiber components for BSF larvae in pig manure and sawdust mixtures.
Phototactic behavior is critical for insect ecological adaptation, especially visual responses to light wavelengths. This study examined locomotor responses to red and ultraviolet (UV) light in congeneric pentatomids, a predator (Arma chinensis) versus a pest (Halyomorpha halys), and explored the underlying visual molecular mechanisms. Results showed that red and UV light significantly increased total movement distance of both species with distinct species-and sex-specific differences. Red light exerted the strongest promoting effect on total movement distance, particularly during 4-8 h of exposure. Male A. chinensis traveled farther, moved faster, and paused more frequently than females under red and UV light. Male H. halys moved faster and paused more frequently under red light; H. halys moved faster than A. chinensis under red light, while female H. halys had longer pause duration than female A. chinensis under UV light. For H. halys, females traveled farther under control light, with no sex difference under red light and males traveling farther under UV light. H. halys possesses three long-wavelength opsins versus two in A. chinensis. Both species share the conserved 7tm_photoreceptors_insect domain and typical GPCR characteristics, and their opsins are highly homologous with other Hemiptera. Although conducted under laboratory conditions, our findings provide valuable insights into the development of environmentally friendly pest control methods and open new avenues for basic and applied insect visual ecology research.
Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens, BSF) larvae are increasingly promoted as a sustainable solution for organic waste management, offering the benefits of mitigating environmental impacts and establishing effective waste degradation methodologies. However, no previous studies have explored the potential of using coffee marc and illite in combination with fermented laying hen manure. This study focused on enhancing the decomposition process and minimizing the environmental footprint of fermented laying hen manure by supplementing it with coffee marc or a combination of coffee marc and illite, and using BSF larvae. In comparison with TRT 1 (fermented laying hen manure + coffee marc), the 2nd and 3rd instar BSF larvae for TRT 2 (fermented laying hen manure + a combination of coffee marc and illite) groups demonstrated the highest biodegradation efficacy and suppressed NH3 formation. Notably, TRT 2 presented the favorable nutritional conditions for the larvae, as reflected by optimal pH values (7.09 for 2nd instar and 6.69 for 3rd instar) and total nitrogen levels (5.21% for 2nd instar and 6.21% for 3rd instar), both of which surpassed ideal benchmarks. Furthermore, fermented manure mixtures in TRT 2 exhibited significantly improved ADF, NDF, and hemicellulose contents, which are key regulators of larval development and crucial for improving the quality of organic fertilizer. Based on these results, we recommend using 3rd instar BSF larvae for laying hen farming. This method offers two key advantages: the production of premium organic fertilizer during composting, which reduces environmental impact, and the efficient bioremediation of organic waste.
To evaluate population-specific susceptibility to pyrethroid insecticides, four field populations of Frankliniella intonsa collected from alfalfa fields in Inner Mongolia were assessed using ingestion and contact bioassays. Four pyrethroids-bifenthrin, cyfluthrin, cypermethrin, and deltamethrin-were tested. In ingestion assays, cypermethrin LC50 values ranged from 3.00 to 20.42 mg/L, corresponding to resistance ratios of up to 6.81-fold among populations. In contrast, contact bioassays revealed substantially greater variability, with bifenthrin resistance reaching 75.50-fold in the HHG population. Synergistic bioassays showed generally low synergistic ratios (< 2), indicating limited involvement of metabolic detoxification, although a moderate effect of piperonyl butoxide (SR = 2.08) was observed in HHG. Among detoxification-related genes, CYP12A4 expression in HHG was 4.6-8.8-fold higher than in other populations. This overexpression suggests a potential but minor contribution of cytochrome P450-mediated detoxification. Sanger sequencing of the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) gene identified the T929I mutation in all four populations, with resistant allele frequencies ranging from 26.2% to 50.0%. A strong positive correlation (r = 0.93) was observed between Ile929 allele frequency and cypermethrin resistance levels, although this relationship was not statistically significant (p = 0.07). These results suggest that the T929I mutation is likely associated with pyrethroid resistance in F. intonsa, whereas metabolic detoxification plays a limited and population-dependent role. These findings provide a scientific basis for resistance monitoring and rational insecticide management in F. intonsa.
The diversity of secondary endosymbiotic bacteria plays an important role in host biology. Our recent findings revealed multiple secondary endosymbiotic infections in harvestmen, particularly involving Wolbachia and Rickettsiella, which have been rarely reported in this group. In this study, we found that Sinonychia martensi populations from six of the seven caves sampled were positive for Wolbachia, and one cave population was infected with Rickettsiella. Additionally, 12 of the 14 surface-dwelling harvestmen populations showed varying levels of infection with Wolbachia and Rickettsiella, while Cardinium was detected in only one population. Both cave and surface-dwelling harvestmen exhibited variable levels of secondary endosymbiotic infection, and multiple infections were common. Comparative phylogenetic analyses, population structure analyses of cave-dwelling harvestmen, and recombination analyses suggested that the acquisition of secondary endosymbionts did not result from host-symbiont co-divergence. Instead, horizontal transmission and genetic recombination appear to have played significant roles in their evolutionary history.
The utilization of black soldier fly (BSF) larvae is regarded as one of the most effective solutions for addressing the growing abundance of organic waste and environmental challenges linked to its disposal, especially in the livestock industries. However, limited information exists regarding the optimal ratio of organic waste mixtures required to enhance waste degradation and minimize environmental contamination. This study aimed to assess the effects of BSF larvae on the biodegradation process and the environmental impact of broiler manure combined with coffee marc. When the mixture of broiler manure and coffee marc was treated with BSF larvae, it showed enhanced biodegradation and significant (p < 0.05) reduction in ammonia emissions (by 73%-96%), compared to treatments involving only broiler manure or coffee marc. These variations in degradation efficiency and ammonia reduction were influenced by the different ratios of additives in combination with the larvae. From an environmental perspective, the mixture of broiler manure and coffee marc and treatment with BSF larvae proved effective in maintaining a balanced combination of factors such as pH, total nitrogen (TN), moisture, acid detergent fiber (ADF), and neutral detergent fiber (NDF), which contributed to minimizing the environmental impacts (p < 0.05). Improved biodegradation and reduced ammonia production were linked to favorable conditions including lower pH level, optimal moisture content, and properly balanced TN, ADF, and NDF. In conclusion, a blend of broiler manure (1000 g) and coffee marc (1000 g) and treatment with BSF larvae (200 g) is a viable and environmentally sustainable alternative to conventional waste management strategies.
The microRNAs play an important role in regulating biological posttranscriptional gene expressions to affect different biological processes of hexapod. Ericerus pela, commonly known as the white wax scale insect (hereafter, WWS), is a resource insect with significant economic value with two distinct developmental styles in male and female. In order to obtain the differential expression of miRNAs in the growth and development of WWS, we conducted miRNA sequencing of male and female through high-throughput sequencing. A total of 162 and 63 miRNAs were obtained from the male and female larvae respectively with systematic analysis. Mainly mapping on chromosome 2, the miRNAs were classified into 46 families throughout the whole genome of WWS. Furthermore, 17 differentially expressed miRNAs were obtained and a total of 3092 target genes were predicted and related to postembryonic, gonadal development and wing morphogenesis by enrichment analysis. It was concluded that miRNAs have a pivotal role in the sexual differential development of WWS. Our study is the original report for analyzing the metamorphosis of WWS by miRNAs. It will lay a foundation for further investigation of the miRNAs function in the growth and development of insects.
The Korea Disease Control and Prevention Agency (KDCA) has performed a diagnosis of Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia Syndrome Virus (SFTSV) in ticks collected from humans. In April 2023, a tick was removed from the neck of a 5-year-old child in Sejong City and identified as a nymph of the genus Ixodes. However, it was morphologically different from previously reported Ixodes nipponensis and Ixodes persulcatus. This tick showed the following features: Coxa I with a long internal spur and a short triangular external spur; Coxae II-IV each with distinct, subequal external spurs; and Coxa II with a rudimentary internal spur. Based on molecular identification with 16S rRNA, 12S rRNA, and the mitochondrial Cytochrome C Oxidase subunit I (COI) gene markers, the sequences shared 99.7%, 100.0%, and 99.9% identity, respectively, with Ixodes columnae sequences identified as a new species from Japan in 1992. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report in the Republic of Korea (ROK) to identify I. columnae. Major tick-borne pathogens, including SFTSV, Anaplasma, Ehrlichia, Rickettsia, and Borrelia, were not detected in this specimen. Further research is needed to investigate morphological characteristics based on taxonomy and geographic distribution in the ROK.
This study focused on developing new mosquito attractants and evaluating their efficacy to control disease-vector mosquitoes through field experiments. As vectors of diseases such as malaria, dengue, and Zika, mosquitoes pose significant global health risks that are exacerbated by climate change and insecticide resistance. To address these challenges, eco-friendly alternatives are needed. Three newly formulated attractants (Type 1, Type 2, and Type 3) were tested against the commercial attractants BG-Lure and BG-Mozzibait in field trials in Thailand and South Korea. BG-Lure exhibited the highest overall efficacy, whereas Type 3 demonstrated superior performance in South Korea, achieving the highest daily average capture rate under certain conditions. In Thailand, Type 1 showed attraction rates comparable with those of BG-Mozzibait. These findings highlight the variability in attractant efficacy depending on location and mosquito species, underscoring the importance of tailored solutions for effective mosquito control and sampling for other study purposes. These newly developed attractants present sustainable alternatives to chemical control methods and offer valuable insights for improving public health strategies.
The cherry red cockroach (Shelfordella lateralis) has potential medical application, but its antimicrobial peptides have not yet been studied. Using transcriptome-based gene cloning, bioinformatic analyses, and RT-qPCR, the sequences, structural features, and expression patterns of SlAttacin genes were systematically characterized. In this study, two Attacin genes (SlAttacin1 and SlAttacin2) in S. lateralis were identified; their sequences and expression profiles were analyzed. Both SlAttacins contain a signal peptide and conserved domains, with predicted protein molecular weights of 12.88 and 24.02 kDa, respectively. In addition, SlAttacin1 was highly expressed in female adults, while SlAttacin2 exhibited high expression in fourth-instar nymphs. Both SlAttacin genes were predominantly expressed in the fat body of nymphs. Moreover, bacterial infection (Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus) significantly induced the transcriptional levels of SlAttacin, and exposure to deltamethrin (1 & times; 10-5 mg/L) significantly enhanced the expression of both SlAttacin genes. This study provides experimental evidence and theoretical support for the functional analysis of antimicrobial peptides in S. lateralis and their potential applications in the development of novel antimicrobial agents.
Pryeria sinica Moore is a significant pest of Celastraceae and Pentaphylacaceae plants, causing extensive defoliation in East Asia and beyond. Although its morphological and biological characteristics have been studied in China and Japan, detailed research on the Korean population remains limited. This study investigated the morphological characteristics of Korean P. sinica populations, including stage-specific changes, sexual dimorphism, cocoons, and wings. The morphological analysis revealed that the Korean population shows distinct differences from other East Asian populations in the distribution of spiracles and wing venation. Notably, the Korean population exhibited spiracles from the first to eighth abdominal segments, whereas the Taiwanese population lacked spiracles on the first segment. Wing venation patterns differed, particularly in the bifurcation of cubital and anal veins, suggesting divergence between Chinese and Taiwanese populations compared to Korean and Japanese populations. The morphological differences identified in this study are interpreted as regional variation influenced by local environmental conditions. However, whether such variation reflects environmentally induced phenotypic plasticity or more fundamental differences indicative of potential speciation requires further clarification through molecular studies.
Although the southern armyworm (SAW), Spodoptera eridania, and the yellow-striped armyworm (YSAW), Spodoptera ornithogalli, have not yet been introduced to Korea, they are listed as regulated quarantine pests in Korea because of their potential to cause serious economic losses in diverse agricultural crops upon introduction. Therefore, a preemptive diagnostic method that enables rapid and accurate identification is necessary to prevent the establishment of these species. In this study, we developed loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays for in-field use. To develop these assays, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genomes (mitogenomes) of the two target species, SAW and YSAW, along with that of Spodoptera praefica. By comparing the three mitogenome sequences with publicly available sequences of 11 lepidopteran species, we preferentially selected sequences suitable for designing SAW- and YSAW-specific primers for the LAMP assays from the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene (COI). The assays consistently diagnosed SAW and YSAW from 13 nontarget species, including the reciprocal target species, five Spodoptera species, and seven other lepidopteran species, within 25 min of reaction time using crude DNA. These LAMP assays could serve as rapid and accurate in-field detection tools for SAW and YSAW.
