Abstract Passive light traps are widely used in insect biodiversity studies, but they often cause substantial bycatch and non‐target mortality, particularly of flying insects such as Lepidoptera. This indiscriminate killing of non‐target species reduces overall sample quality and increases processing effort. Here, we developed a novel passive light trap design that incorporates a multi‐layer funnel system and behavioural filtering to selectively retain crawling insects while allowing actively flying taxa to escape. The trap was tested across 49 field trials in forest and riparian habitats, comparing its performance with a conventional bucket‐style light trap. The modified design significantly increased the proportion of target taxa (mainly Coleoptera) while effectively reducing flying insect bycatch (e.g., Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, Trichoptera), without reducing the abundance or diversity of beetles. These results demonstrate that behaviour‐based structural filtering can improve sampling selectivity and efficiency, providing a practical and scalable approach for biodiversity monitoring with reduced non‐target impact.
Abstract Canthonidia rubromaculata is an Amazonian dung beetle with an extremely restricted distribution and low detectability, recorded only in Bolivia, Venezuela, Brazil and Peru. Available evidence indicates that it is a specialist of riverine beaches, open microhabitats characterized by high temperatures, intense solar radiation and limited scientific study, which are increasingly threatened by climate change and the expansion of artisanal gold mining. To evaluate its physiological vulnerability, we quantified the thermal limits of the species using respirometry with thermal ramps, generating continuous metabolic trajectories based on CO 2 production. We recorded a mean stress heat threshold (SHST) of 31.75°C (±3.39) and a critical thermal maximum (CTmax) of 45.46°C (±3.53), with consistent metabolic patterns among individuals and clear transitions between basal respiration, thermal stress and physiological failure. In parallel, we recorded microclimatic variation in beaches and forests using data loggers and documented surface activity, feeding behaviour and interspecific interactions with close‐focus cameras, providing previously unreported observations for this species. The proximity between the thermal limits of C. rubromaculata and the maximum temperatures recorded on beaches during the dry season suggests a reduced capacity to tolerate future thermal increases. Our study represents the first physiological characterization of this taxon and provides key evidence to assess its persistence under ongoing climate warming and the accelerated degradation of Amazonian riverine habitats.
Abstract Fire is an important disturbance affecting arthropods across various biomes, including conifer forests. Many Scots pine Pinus sylvestris L. (Pinales: Pinaceae) forests experience surface wildfires which influence arthropods, for example, creating deadwood and altering vegetation structure. Prescribed burning could have similar effects. We tested burning in a pinewood nature reserve in Scotland, holding a ‘flagship’ bird species that might benefit, alongside an arthropod community of high conservation importance. We also tested mowing, an easier, less contentious management, which might mimic fire effects. We aimed to assess conservation implications of these managements by identifying spider or beetle species that ‘followed’ or ‘avoided’ disturbance and measuring community responses. An experiment was established comprising 24 blocks, each holding three 700 m 2 plots (burn, mow and control). Pitfall trapping took place before treatment, and 1, 2, 3, 6 and 12 years afterwards. In total, 135 species of spiders and 217 species of beetles were recorded, but most were rare; 82 were sufficiently abundant to analyse species‐level responses. Among these, 12 species apparently followed disturbance (higher counts after burning or mowing) and 11 avoided it; these 23 species comprised 73% of recorded biomass. Typical disturbance followers were large, ground‐active predators; disturbance avoiders were often small web‐spinners or herbivores. Community displacement peaked 2–3 years after treatment. Mowing typically had similar effects to burning. Species richness of beetles of conservation importance increased in treated plots. In similar contexts to this study (e.g., UK pinewoods), if complemented by long‐term, undisturbed areas, we consider that burning or mowing can aid arthropod conservation.
Abstract Rapid urbanization threatens biodiversity, yet well‐managed urban green spaces can support wildlife. Butterflies provide pollination, environmental indicators and conservation engagement, but remain understudied in India's cities. This study synthesizes the current status of butterfly diversity and conservation initiatives in urban India, identifies major gaps in research and management and proposes targeted strategies for strengthening urban butterfly conservation. We conducted a comprehensive literature search of Scopus, Web of Science and PubMed for studies published between 2001 and 2025. We also reviewed relevant legislation, protected areas, government programmes, NGO activities, citizen science initiatives and international examples to develop recommendations for urban butterfly conservation in India. We found that studies on urban butterfly diversity were conducted in only 23 Indian cities. These studies documented 360 species belonging to 180 genera and 6 families. Guwahati recorded the highest richness (247 species), followed by Thrissur (139) and Nagpur (119). Among these species, 71 are protected by Schedules of Wildlife (Protection) Act of India. Only 41 species have been assessed by the IUCN, revealing a critical conservation‐assessment gap. Existing urban butterfly conservation initiatives include butterfly parks, urban sanctuaries, institutional campuses, urban forests, butterfly corridors, citizen science and community monitoring. Urban India supports considerable butterfly diversity but remains sunder‐surveyed and inadequately integrated into biodiversity governance. We proposed 10 actions encompassing biodiversity‐sensitive urban planning, standardized monitoring, habitat connectivity, native plant restoration, research, citizen participation, education, symbolic recognition and stronger government–NGO collaboration. Integrating these measures into urban development can transform cities from biodiversity sinks into resilient conservation landscapes.
Abstract As cities rapidly expand worldwide, urbanization is one of the main drivers of natural habitat and biodiversity loss. Even though urban freshwater habitats are important in biodiversity conservation, the ecological requirements of aquatic insects, such as dragonflies (Odonata), are insufficiently known. We studied dragonfly assemblages based on nymph records in nine urban streams in a capital city in south‐eastern Europe. The upper sections of all streams were in a natural state, while lower sections were urbanized. Dragonfly taxonomic and functional assemblage metrics were similar between natural and urbanized stream sections. However, there was downstream species turnover, where habitat specialists were replaced by generalists, also reflected in significant differences in some traits in the two types of stream sections. These results suggest that human disturbance did not significantly reduce overall trait space but rather altered the composition of traits within assemblages. Overall, natural stream sections had a significantly higher conservation value than urbanized ones. Dragonfly assemblages were strongly shaped by natural and anthropogenic environmental drivers such as elevation, habitat shade, percentage of microhabitats with fine sediments, physical and chemical water properties and level of anthropogenic impact, especially substrate modification. Urbanized sites with higher habitat heterogeneity (higher variety of microhabitats, including macrophyte vegetation) had more diverse dragonfly assemblages, whereas sites with artificial substrates (e.g., concrete) were unsuitable for many species. The results emphasize the importance of including natural habitat heterogeneity in urbanized areas for conservation of dragonfly stream assemblages, which is our main management recommendation.
Phenology, the timing of biological events such as first flowering or emergence, plays a key role in understanding ecological responses to climate change. With the rapidly growing number of opportunistic citizen science records, it is important to understand whether and how phenological estimates differ between unstructured and structured recording approaches for animals and plants. We compared phenological metrics derived from unstructured records in iRecord Butterflies with those from structured, transect-based monitoring in the UK Butterfly Monitoring Scheme (UKBMS). Focusing on single-generation species, both data sources produce similar estimates of temporal trends in phenology, but unstructured data shows systematically earlier weighted mean flight dates (7.57 +/- 1.57 days). It also reports earlier onsets (9.38 +/- 1.24 days) and later ends (-8.46 +/- 4.55 days) than UKBMS, resulting in longer inferred flight periods. Results may reflect intrinsic differences in sampling between the two datasets, as well as recorder behaviour and motivations. Moreover, these differences are independent of sample size, suggesting that iRecord Butterflies observers may systematically search for early and late flying adults. Recognising and accounting for phenology sampling differences will be important when using citizen science data for phenological inference in butterflies and other taxa.
Tropical ant species differ in their daily activity, yet it remains unclear whether diel foraging and species coexistence patterns differ between primary forests and environmentally altered, invasion-prone secondary forests. We placed baits on the forest floor and trunks in Papua New Guinea to assess ant foraging activity in primary and secondary forests during day and night. Using species-time networks, co-occurrence null models and generalized linear mixed-effects models (GLMMs), we tested for differences in diel community patterns across forest types and strata. Primary forests hosted more diurnal species and exhibited a significant diel foraging specialization. In contrast, secondary forests were less species-rich, dominated by invasive ants and showed a random diel foraging pattern, with a greater number of species active at night. Mean ant abundance per bait was twice as high during the day as at night in both forest types, but this increase was stratum-dependent and driven by different guilds: arboreal and terrestrial ants showed higher daytime abundances on trunks in primary forests, while semiarboreal ants did so across both strata in secondary forests. This effect diminished in secondary forests when only native species were considered. Species co-occurrence patterns, however, remained strongly negative across forest types and time periods. We conclude that forest disturbance and the spread of invasive species simultaneously disrupt diel activity patterns in ant communities. The persistence of negative co-occurrence across forests and diel periods indicates that these patterns are driven by environmental filtering rather than shifts in interspecific interactions.
Mining is a major global driver of freshwater degradation, yet its effects on lotic macroinvertebrate communities have not been quantitatively synthesized at a global scale. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of peer-reviewed studies retrieved from Web of Science, Scopus and Google Scholar following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines to assess global patterns, geographic biases and biodiversity responses to mining disturbance. A total of 88 studies were included in the systematic review, of which 39 provided quantitative data for meta-analysis, comprising 296 comparisons of macroinvertebrate richness, abundance and diversity between mined and reference sites. Mining significantly reduced macroinvertebrate community structure overall, with the strongest negative effects observed for richness and for sensitive Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) taxa, confirming their value as indicators of ecological degradation. Although impacts were consistent across climatic regions, important geographic and methodological biases were detected, including the underrepresentation of tropical systems and limited integration of landscape-scale abiotic drivers. These findings provide the first global quantitative synthesis of mining impacts on lotic macroinvertebrates and highlight the need for broader geographic coverage, improved environmental standardization and the use of richness- and EPT-based metrics to strengthen freshwater biomonitoring and conservation planning.
Abstract The parasitoid wasps of the Polysphincta genus‐group are often assumed to be highly specialised, as most of their known interactions involve monospecific host spiders. The potential specialisation in hosts may reflect a lack of information on their interactions and geographic sampling biases. Using distribution models of parasitoids (from Acrotaphus , Hymenoepimecis and Polysphincta genera) and their known hosts based on bioclimatic and altimetric variables, we assessed how underestimated these parasitoid interactions may be, where the main geographic sampling gaps are and which species have the most limited data. According to our results, some parasitoid species seem to, indeed, exploit a narrow range of host species. We identified parasitoid species that likely have additional hosts and highlighted the main geographic sampling gaps. This study provides the basis for understanding the relationship between the geographical distribution of parasitoids and the number of their hosts, as well as a guide for future research.
1. Whole-genome sequencing has transformed our capacity to study population structure, define taxonomic boundaries and evaluate evolutionary and conservation processes. By capturing genome-wide variation, these data provide unparalleled clarity in discerning recent divergence, gene flow and demographic history, even among closely related populations or subspecies. 2. The British swallowtail butterfly (Papilio machaon britannicus), a habitat specialist restricted to the fenlands of eastern England, is a compelling example of how genomic data can inform subspecies delimitation and conservation status. 3. Through whole-genome sequencing of P. machaon populations across Europe, we demonstrate that P. m. britannicus forms a genetically distinct and isolated lineage. In contrast, continental subspecies, such as P. m. gorganus and P. m. machaon, are genomically indistinguishable and should be considered a single, widespread subspecies. 4. Although P. m. britannicus displays similar to 20% lower heterozygosity than its continental relatives, it retains moderate genetic variation and shows no evidence of an elevated load of deleterious mutations. However, we found significantly higher inbreeding and extended runs of homozygosity, which could raise concerns about its long-term viability. 5. Demographic modelling based on the site frequency spectrum revealed limited power to resolve recent population size changes; however, weak historical gene flow from the continent was inferred. 6. Overall, our study demonstrates the effectiveness of whole-genome data in resolving fine-scale population structure and guiding conservation assessments for range-restricted taxa.
The intensification of agriculture has led to a decline in farmland biodiversity, particularly affecting predatory arthropods in grasslands, which are essential for regulating crop pests. While local management and landscape heterogeneity are known to influence arthropod communities, the role of intensity of farming practices at the landscape scale remains underexplored. This study examines the effects of local farming practices, landscape heterogeneity and landscape-scale farming practices on grassland arthropod diversity, with the aim of quantifying their contribution to alpha and beta arthropod diversity. We sampled ground-dwelling arthropods belonging to four taxonomic groups (spiders, carabid beetles, rove beetles and chilopods) in 18 grasslands located in Moselle (France) using pitfall traps in spring and autumn 2021. Local parameters (i.e., NDVI and farming practices in sampled grasslands) and landscape parameters (e.g., land cover heterogeneity and farming practice intensity within a 500-m radius) were characterized. Principal component analysis (PCA) identified three environmental gradients: the landscape intensity axis, the land cover axis and the local intensity axis. Generalized linear models and variance partitioning revealed that the land cover axis predominantly influenced alpha diversity in spring, while local management intensity was the primary driver in autumn. The landscape intensity axis significantly shaped beta diversity by driving balanced variation in abundance. However, substantial unexplained variance in beta diversity indicates potential contributions from stochastic processes or unconsidered parameters (e.g., soil and climate conditions) These findings underscore the need to integrate both land cover and farming practice intensity in conservation strategies to enhance arthropod diversity in agricultural landscapes.
Abstract Combining taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity facets offers a more complete view of biodiversity, yet their fine‐scale drivers for mountainous insect communities remain poorly understood. We investigated butterfly communities in mountain grasslands and forest clearings in two roadless and protected mountains of Pindus Mt. range in Greece (Smolikas and Tymfi, 1240–1950 m), by seasonally surveying 22 transects (300 × 5 m) and 66 microhabitat plots (5 × 5 m) in 2022. Multifaceted diversity was quantified from species data, 11 functional traits and a phylogenetic tree, and related to herb/grass height, flowerhead abundance, elevation and slope using generalized linear models. We recorded 83 species, including species of conservation concern (35%); mountain grasslands and forest clearings seemed to support comparable taxonomic, functional and phylogenetic diversity but differed in species composition, highlighting their complementary conservation value. Herb/grass height and flowerhead abundance declined from spring to late summer, while the Community Temperature Index and functional dispersion increased, indicating a shift toward warmer‐adapted and more functionally heterogeneous communities under reduced resource availability. Herb/grass height and flowerhead abundance emerged as the main positive predictors of multifaceted diversity, whereas elevation reduced abundance, functional richness and phylogenetic diversity; the trait‐based model revealed non‐random links between habitat structure and species traits, particularly for temperature affinity, oligophagy, range size and flight period. Our results could inform sustainable grazing in Mediterranean mountain landscapes and contribute to the implementation of the Nature Restoration Regulation.
Abstract While long‐term datasets are invaluable for tracking changes in abundance and species richness, they may still fail to fully capture the diversity of taxonomically unresolved groups, such as many insect taxa. Here, we used a unique 37‐year (1969–2006) freshwater macroinvertebrate time series, collected over seven sites in central Germany, to study biodiversity patterns and species accumulation over time. Focusing on taxonomically well‐resolved insect groups (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Trichoptera [EPT]) versus poorly resolved “dark taxa” (Diptera), we hypothesized that accumulation curves would saturate only in well‐resolved groups. Over the study period, Diptera showed a continuous rise in both abundance and species richness, with accumulation curves not yet reaching a plateau. In contrast, EPT richness increased with no overall abundance changes, and their accumulation curves reached a plateau despite considerably more sampled individuals compared to Diptera. Our findings reveal a critical blind spot in biodiversity monitoring: highly diverse yet poorly resolved groups like Diptera remain underrepresented, even in very long, high‐resolution time‐series.
Understanding the impacts of climate change on insects is hindered by a lack of long-term monitoring data for most species. Citizen science occurrence records provide opportunities to examine changes in the timing of life cycle events (phenology), even for relatively poorly sampled taxon groups. Here, we developed a workflow to examine the effects of climate change on insect phenology using occurrence records and tested it for the Dark-edged Bee-fly, Bombylius major Linnaeus 1758, in Britain. We used quantile regression to characterise changes in phenology as a continuous process between the start (emergence) and end (senescence) of annual flight periods from 1984 to 2024. Regression models were used to explore the sensitivities of the timing of emergence and senescence to explanatory climate variables based on hypothesised causal models. Between 1984 and 2024, emergence has advanced by about 9 days (at a rate of -0.23 d/yr. +/- 0.04 d/yr) and senescence by about 22 days (-0.53 d/yr. +/- 0.11 d/yr), with rates of change varying continuously between emergence and senescence. Consequently, the annual flight period has shortened by about 13 days (-0.33 d/yr. +/- 0.01 d/yr) over the study period. Both advanced emergence and senescence correlate with climate warming, with maximum rather than average monthly temperatures more influential on phenological changes. Precipitation contributes to delayed senescence. Our workflow is generalisable to other insect species that lack long-term monitoring, provided a minimum amount of occurrence records is available, and is adaptable to include trait analysis to understand variation in phenology trends among species.
Understanding the role of climate change in the globally reported declines of insect populations is difficult due to complex interactions between climate and other drivers, such as agricultural practices and changes in land use practices. We focused on subarctic moth communities in northernmost Finland, a region with significant climatic changes and minimal human impact. We use moth species abundance data from 45 years of light-trap monitoring at the Kevo Subarctic Research Institute. TRIM analyses showed a significant positive trend in total moth biomass between 1972 and 2017. There were large differences in biomass trends between different groups based on life-history traits. Seven trait-based groups had significant positive population trends: species pupating early in the season, overwintering as eggs, feeding as larvae on live vascular plants, feeding on both herbaceous and woody plants, species with larvae chewing freely on leaves and those with leaf-rolling larvae, as well as generalists feeding on at least three plant genera. Moths overwintering as larvae, species feeding only on herbaceous plants and specialists feeding on only one plant genus had negative trends. Five groups had no significant trends. Linear mixed models revealed significant correlations between regime shifts in the Baltic Sea and biomass in five moth groups. Temperature and degree-day variables were also important. A negative relation between a positive NAO (North Atlantic Oscillation) index in spring and moth biomass was implied. Our results suggest that large-scale oceanic climate patterns, such as regime shifts and the NAO, can be useful proxies for predicting the effects of complex climatic phenomena on terrestrial ecosystems.
Wild bees play a crucial role in sustaining ecosystem functioning and plant reproduction, yet comprehensive information on their diversity and seasonal dynamics remains limited in North Africa. In this study, we investigated how wild bee communities vary across contrasting sites and seasons in the Middle Atlas region of Morocco. Flower-visiting insects were surveyed using standardized pan-trap sampling from March to August over two consecutive years across three contrasting sites differing in vegetation characteristics and disturbance levels. A total of 3842 insect individuals were recorded, with communities dominated by flies (43.2%), followed by beetles (25.0%) and wild bees (18.7%). The wild bee assemblage comprised 753 individuals representing 76 species across 19 genera and six families, with Andrena and Lasioglossum being the most species-rich and abundant genera. Species accumulation analyses indicated high sampling completeness overall, although additional rare species are likely to occur, particularly at Zerouka during late summer. Bee communities exhibited strong spatial and seasonal structuring. Moudmam supported the highest species richness and abundance, while Ras el Ma and Zerouka hosted distinct assemblages characterized by differences in dominant taxa and site characteristics. Seasonal turnover was pronounced, with early spring communities dominated by Andrena species and summer assemblages increasingly characterized by halictid and long-tongued bees. In addition, the survey documented two species newly recorded for Morocco, two endemic species and 16 species newly recorded for the F & egrave;s-Mekn & egrave;s region. Overall, our findings reveal marked differences in pollinator communities across sites and seasons and provide a comprehensive assessment of wild bee diversity in the Middle Atlas. These results contribute valuable baseline data for understanding and conserving pollinator diversity in Mediterranean mountain ecosystems.
With global climate change, freshwater systems are anticipated to experience more pressure from stochastic climate events such as drought. These pressures are amplified when acting in concert with restricted functional connectivity among suitable patches in human-dominated landscapes. Focusing on a plantation forestry area in the northeastern coastal region of South Africa, we determined (1) whether drought negatively impacts functional connectivity across a natural grassland-plantation forestry mosaic landscape, (2) whether dispersal pathways are similar between wet and dry years, and (3) interpreted results relative to assemblage-level ecological resilience under different climatic scenarios. Dragonflies (Odonata) were used as model organisms. Using the Omniscape algorithm and least cost path modelling, assemblage data were analysed to identify discrepancies in landscape-scale functional connectivity between wet climatic conditions vs. drought. Compared to a typical wet year, species richness was lower, yet functional connectivity was higher during drought. Together with increased connectivity network density, these results indicated that the dragonfly assemblage showed a higher propensity for dispersal during drought. Dispersal pathways varied among the investigated wet and dry years, and relative to temporal changes in the landscape. While some dragonfly species can traverse plantation compartments during drought, conservation corridors facilitated overall functional connectivity during wet and dry conditions. The value of conservation corridors relies on representativeness of regional aquatic habitat variety, natural terrestrial conditions within corridors, and connectivity to natural areas in the wider landscape. Together, these corridor characteristics can greatly improve resilience of full dragonfly assemblages against climatic stochasticity.
After rehabilitation, mine tailing storage facilities (TSFs) offer potential open habitats for pollinators, particularly bumblebees, complementary to boreal forest ecosystems. This study evaluated pollinator diversity, relative abundance and species composition in TSFs rehabilitated using agronomic and spontaneous revegetation strategies, comparing these to nearby open forest sites after logging as control sites. Six sites, three rehabilitated 8-15 years ago and three control sites logged 5-8 years ago, were surveyed for pollinating insects (bee-hymenoptera, known families of pollinating diptera and coleoptera), focusing on species within the genus Bombus (Hymenoptera: Apidae), a key group of pollinators in northern ecosystems. Rehabilitated TSFs were not found to differ compared to control sites regarding the structure of pollinator communities in terms of abundance, diversity, richness, or evenness. Both agronomic and spontaneous revegetation approaches were found to support similar pollinator communities. These findings suggest that revegetated TSFs can potentially work as interesting habitats for pollinator populations, highlighting their value in ecological restoration. Moreover, Bombus terricola, a species of conservation concern, was flagged as an indicator species for the Barvue sites, both the TSF and the control. This study contributes to the growing evidence that mine rehabilitation can support biodiversity and ecosystem services in boreal landscapes, aligning with global efforts in ecological restoration and pollinator conservation.
The Comal Springs riffle beetle (Heterelmis comalensis; CSRB; Coleoptera: Elmidae) is a flightless species endemic to two springs flowing from the Edwards Aquifer in central Texas. It was listed as federally endangered primarily due to its limited distribution and the threat of water over-extraction from the aquifer. The listing led to the initiation of a research programme that has improved our understanding of the species' biology and the establishment of captive populations. The primary CSRB population in Comal Springs and a co-occurring cosmopolitan species, Microcylloepus pusillus (Coleoptera: Elmidae), have been monitored semiannually since 2004. Our overall goal was to investigate responses to environmental variation using an intensive 1-year population study and long-term data. The population assessment was more spatially and temporally intensive than biomonitoring and was initiated to assess the distribution of the CSRB, determine which environmental covariates relate to relative abundance and develop relative abundance estimates to inform biomonitoring. The population study indicated that spring flow was the primary driver of adult and larval CSRB populations, suggesting that lower spring flows lead to lower populations. CSRB abundance was also positively associated with biofilm coverage, although its effect size was smaller than that of spring flow. Microcylloepus pusillus was not affected by spring flow or biofilm, emphasizing the unique ecological niche of the CSRB and the importance of maintaining spring flow through droughts to support populations. Model results were adapted into a framework for an annual assessment of populations using biomonitoring data. Long-term monitoring data suggest that the abundances of both species have declined over the past two decades, but M. pusillus has declined beyond the variation explained by included environmental factors.
Climate change poses substantial threats to biodiversity in ecologically transitional regions, making the identification of potential climate refugia for vulnerable insect taxa essential for conservation planning. Here, we provide the first multi-species assessment of climate-driven suitable habitats shifts for Meloidae beetles in the Inner Western Anatolia sub-region of T & uuml;rkiye. We modelled the current and future distributions of eight ecologically diverse Meloidae species using ecological niche models (ENMs) based on bioclimatic, topographic and land-cover predictors under two Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5). Our projections revealed highly heterogeneous responses among species; widespread taxa like Mylabris variabilis exhibited potential for elevational shifts within the study area, whereas Alosimus chalybaeus faced severe range contractions, particularly under the high-emission scenario. Overlay analyses identified mountain systems such as Domani & ccedil;, E & gbreve;rig & ouml;z and Murat as robust multi-species refugia likely to retain climatic suitability under both future scenarios, though other high-elevation systems lost this buffering capacity under severe warming. Critically, we address the paradox that many predicted refugia are currently dominated by dense forests unsuitable for these heliophilic, open-habitat beetles, arguing that their future suitability is contingent on climate-driven vegetation shifts-such as increased wildfire and pest outbreaks-that can convert closed-canopy forests into favourable open habitats. Despite limitations inherent to ENMs, our findings offer a spatially explicit framework for identifying and prioritizing conservation areas, underscoring the necessity of integrating future ecosystem dynamics into climate change refugia planning.
