This study was conducted to determine the effect of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)-based psychoeducation on suicide risk and social functioning in patients with depression. The study was conducted with 100 patients with depression (50 intervention, 50 control) in the psychiatry clinic of XXXX University Hospital as a pre-test and post-test with control group experimental research. Data were collected by using Descriptive Information Form, Suicide Probability Scale (SPS) and Social Adaptation Self-Evaluation Scale. Patients with depression in the intervention group received 8 sessions of CBT-based psychoeducation, while no intervention was administered to patients with depression in the control group. After CBT-based psychoeducation, the suicide probability level (88.72 ± 18.50) of patients with depression in the experimental group decreased compared to the suicide probability level (94.98 ± 18.92) of patients with depression in the control group, and the social functioning level (62.40 ± 8.86) increased compared to the social functioning level (51.74 ± 8.18) of patients with depression in the control group. In the study, it was found that CBT-based psychoeducation made a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) on the suicide probability and social functioning levels of patients with depression in the experimental group. CBT-based psychoeducation provided to patients with depression was found to be effective in reducing the suicide risk level and increasing the level of social functioning in these patients.
Albert Ellis consistently maintained that the ultimate therapeutic goal of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) extends beyond disputing situation-specific irrational beliefs to identifying and modifying the deeper philosophical beliefs from which they arise. This article re-examines Ellis’s writings on the ABC model, irrational beliefs, and philosophical change, arguing that enduring philosophical belief change—not simply the restructuring of situation-specific beliefs— was the principal mechanism through which Ellis believed enduring improvements in emotional wellbeing, adaptive functioning across life situations, and overall life satisfaction and fulfilment were achieved. Ellis employed two main therapeutic pathways to achieve this goal: in some instances using the ABC model to move from situation-specific beliefs to their underlying philosophies, and in others identifying philosophical beliefs directly through systematic questioning. The article argues that contemporary neuroscience provides a plausible explanatory framework for these distinctive pathways. Current research suggests that deliberate cognitive reappraisal of situation-specific irrational beliefs primarily recruits executive control networks centred on the Prefrontal Cortex. By contrast, the broader philosophical beliefs through which people habitually interpret themselves, others, and life events are thought to exert their influence through processes within the Default Mode Network. These processes integrate autobiographical memory, self-knowledge, and enduring philosophical beliefs to construct the personal meaning assigned to experience. These interacting neurocognitive systems provide a contemporary rationale for distinguishing between therapeutic change achieved through restructuring situation-specific beliefs and broader, more enduring change resulting from philosophical belief modification. The article concludes by considering the implications of this perspective for REBT theory, clinical practice, therapist training, and future research.
Perfectionism in creative domains is simultaneously the mechanism of extraordinary achievement and a documented pathway to psychological collapse. This paper examines it through a theoretical and illustrative analysis of Darren Aronofsky’s Black Swan (2010), applying Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), Internal Family Systems (IFS), and the Extended Evolutionary Meta-Model (EEMM). Nina Sayers is a fictional construct, and the limits of fiction as clinical material are stated explicitly and carried through the whole analysis. Every clinical claim concerns what the film depicts or what the frameworks infer, never diagnostic or causal findings. The paper reads the distortions Beck’s CBT identifies in Nina as downstream products of the absolutistic demands Ellis’s REBT targets. Demand-first, schema-first, and reciprocal orderings are compared, and the REBT reading is defended as an organising lens rather than a demonstrated causal hierarchy. Four cross-framework observations and a worked, idiographic formulation of the shame process follow, presenting a hypothesised dependency network with candidate intervention points.
In the complex web of life, coping with challenges is essential. Meaning-based coping reduces dysfunctional reactions to stress and increases psychological resilience to adverse experiences. Therefore, comprehending this mechanism is essential. The primary focus of this study was to examine the mediation of meaning-based coping between forgiveness and resilience, using data from 363 participants in two waves at 3-month intervals. Participants were 233 women (64.2
Currently, there is an increased prevalence of stress, child abuse, and adverse childhood experiences among children, especially Nigerian school children, which is related to mental health problems. This prevalence has left a significant proportion of school children vulnerable to insecurity and rape. This study evaluates the effect of Rational Emotive Family Health Therapy in reducing stress in children with irrational behaviours stemming from adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). It is a double-blinded and randomized study. A total of 104 schoolchildren in Enugu State, Nigeria, who met the inclusion criteria, participated in the study. The study utilized an individually randomised trial design. Three self-report measures were used for data collection: the Childhood Stress Scale (ESI) developed by Lipp Lucarelli (2005) and the Adverse Childhood Experiences-Questionnaire (ACE-Q) developed by Felitti et al. (1998). The measures were administered before and after the treatment, with a follow-up conducted 2 weeks after the treatment. A Rational Emotive Family Health Program (REFHP) derived from the manual developed by Ede et al. (2020) was used as an intervention. Repeated measures with analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to examine the effects of the intervention. The results indicated that Rational Emotive Family Health Therapy had a significant effect on stress and irrational beliefs scores of Nigerian school children with adverse childhood experiences compared to those in the active control group at Time 2. Furthermore, the effect of Rational Emotive Family Health Therapy on reducing stress in children with ACEs was significantly sustained at follow-up measurements (Time 3). In conclusion, this study suggests that Rational Emotive Family Health Therapy is an effective intervention for decreasing stress and irrational beliefs in children with adverse childhood experiences. Therefore, cognitive behavioral therapists can further explore the efficacy of Rational Emotive Family Health Therapy across various cultures.
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is maintained by dysfunctional metacognitive beliefs, but the relative contributions of metacognition, attachment styles, interpersonal emotion regulation, and emotion recognition to worry remain unclear. This study examined the predictors of worry severity and GAD group membership, focusing on the unique contribution of metacognitive beliefs beyond attachment insecurity. Sixty GAD patients (diagnosed via SCID-5) and 50 healthy controls completed the MCQ-30, ECR-II, IERQ, RMET, BDI, and PSWQ. Hierarchical multiple regression examined predictors of worry, and binary logistic regression examined predictors of GAD group membership. After controlling for group membership and depression, metacognitive beliefs (Uncontrollability and Danger, Need to Control Thoughts) explained an additional 13.2
Negative cognitive processing bias (NCPB) reflects a core cognitive mechanism emphasised across cognitive–behavioral models of emotional disorders, contributing to heightened attention to negative cues, biased interpretations, and persistent ruminative processing. Within the framework of cognitive theories, NCPB is considered a modifiable vulnerability factor that maintains maladaptive affective states and disrupts adaptive emotion regulation. This study aimed to translate, culturally adapt, and psychometrically validate the Turkish version of the Negative Cognitive Processing Bias Questionnaire (NCPBQ), enabling its use as a clinically meaningful assessment tool within CBT-oriented research and practice. A total of 256 Turkish university students (Mean age = 21.2, SD = 2.3) completed the NCPBQ along with measures of self-critical rumination and optimism. Following a forward–backward translation procedure, the psychometric evaluation included exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, internal consistency coefficients, item–total correlations, and convergent–discriminant validity testing. The results supported the original four-factor structure, with strong internal consistency (α = 0.92) and robust factorial validity. Convergent validity was demonstrated through strong positive associations with self-critical rumination (r = .83, p < .001), while negative correlations with optimism (r = − .28, p < .001) supported discriminant validity. Given its theoretically grounded focus on maladaptive cognitive biases, the Turkish NCPBQ offers a clinically relevant, mechanism-oriented assessment tool suitable for identifying individuals with elevated vulnerability to negative information processing. The scale holds practical implications for clinical assessment, case formulation, and treatment monitoring, particularly in interventions aiming to modify biased information processing patterns, reduce ruminative tendencies, and strengthen cognitive flexibility.
Positive emotion disturbance (PED) - high-arousal, high-intensity dysfunctional positive emotions - is thought to play a key role in bipolar disorder (BD). Yet its underlying cognitive processes remain poorly understood. In two samples, we explore whether rigid and extreme positive appraisals such as positive irrational beliefs (PIBs) function as emotion-specific appraisals associated with dysfunctional positive emotions beyond domain-general appraisals. In Study 1 (N = 120), we demonstrate that domain-general appraisals significantly predict functional positive feelings (FPF) such as happiness and joy, while PIBs selectively predict high-arousal dysfunctional positive feelings (DPF), such as ecstasy and exaltation. Study 2 (N = 83) replicated these findings, revealing that PIBs were primarily linked to high-arousal positive states with appraisals showing stronger associations with FPF. The pattern of associations is consistent with a dissociation between cognitive processes that may underlie adaptive versus maladaptive positive emotional experiences: domain-general appraisals were related to functional positive emotions, while PIBs were more strongly related to high-arousal, dysfunctional positive states. Further longitudinal and clinical studies may test whether differentiated cognitive targets— appraisal flexibility for adaptive positive affect and belief rigidity for dysregulated positive affect—are clinically relevant for BD.
Trauma has moved from a specialty topic to an organizing language of contemporary mental health, with trauma-informed care (TIC), complex PTSD, somatic and neurobiological frameworks, and parts-based therapies shaping clinical training, public discourse, and policy. Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT), despite its long empirical and theoretical lineage within cognitive-behavioural therapy, has been comparatively absent from this conversation. This theoretical paper argues that contemporary REBT, as articulated in recent reformulations (e.g., rigid and extreme attitudes vs. flexible and non-extreme attitudes, examining vs. disputing, adversity vs. activating event), offers a set of conceptually explicit and potentially complementary tools for trauma-informed practice. Five possible contributions are considered: (a) a structurally explicit account of how rigid demands and their derivative extreme attitudes may develop after adversity; (b) the differentiation of unhealthy and healthy negative emotions; (c) unconditional self-, other-, and life-acceptance as possible responses to trauma-related shame, mistrust, and demoralization; (d) attention to meta-emotional and meta-psychological disturbance; and (e) the integration of force-and-energy principles with experiential methods such as chair work and imagery rescripting. The paper is framed not as a corrective to trauma-informed or established trauma-focused cognitive models, but as a dialogic addition. REBT offers one explicit vocabulary for some evaluative processes involved in post-traumatic adjustment, while trauma-informed perspectives broaden REBT’s account of how such attitudes are developmentally shaped, embodied, relationally organized, and maintained.
The onset and maintenance of social anxiety (SA) are related to interpersonal processes, rather than solely to information processing and emotion regulation within individual internal structures. However, few studies have examined SA from the perspective of interpersonal emotion regulation (IER). This study aimed to explore the association between IER and SA. Using a novel network analysis, this study estimated Gaussian Graphical Models (GGMs) to explore variable connectivity and influential nodes within the IER-SA network among 1022 university students. Results showed that cognitive support may be associated with lower SA, whereas hostility may be associated with higher SA, highlighting the differential relevance of these two factors to SA. GGMs revealed that intervention for SA may exhibit gender differences. Men may benefit from reducing the use of soothing strategies in IER, while women may benefit from increased perspective taking. These findings suggest that receiving more cognitive support and fewer hostile responses in IER may help alleviate SA. This study also offers important insights for gender-specific interventions for SA.
Understanding cognitive and emotion regulation difficulties could provide valuable insights into the mechanisms underlying fatigue in Multiple Sclerosis (MS). This study examined whether emotion regulation difficulties were associated with the relationship between cognitive failures and fatigue in patients with MS. Using a correlational design with structural equation modeling, 210 MS patients (aged 20–40 years) from Yazd and Isfahan City, Iran, completed the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS), Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ), and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS-16). Data analysis revealed significant associations between cognitive failures and fatigue, as indicated by the direct path coefficients (β = 0.25, p< .01) and emotion regulation difficulties (β = 0.43, p< .01), as well as significant indirect path coefficients, indicating an association between cognitive failures and fatigue through heightened emotion regulation difficulties (β = 0.27, p< .01). The model demonstrated good fit (χ²/df = 2.56, CFI = 0.98, RMSEA = 0.08). These findings suggest that emotion regulation difficulties may play an important role in the association between cognitive failures and fatigue in individuals with MS. Although the cross-sectional design does not permit causal or mediation inferences, the findings highlight the potential relevance of emotion-focused interventions for fatigue management.
Guided by a cognitive-behavioral framework, this study examined whether future anxiety mediates the association between cognitive control over emotions and psychological distress among emerging adults. Participants were 461 university students who completed validated measures of cognitive control over emotions, future anxiety, and psychological distress. A two-step structural equation modeling (SEM) approach was used. Indirect effects were tested with 5000-sample bootstrap procedures and bias-corrected and accelerated 95
In the digital age, social media and phones are impacting relationships. Overuse can lead to “partner phubbing,” which means someone becomes absorbed in their phone and doesn’t pay as much attention to their partner. The study aims to explore the consequences of partner phubbing behavior on salient relationships outcomes in romantic relationships. A convergent parallel mixed-methods design was used in this study. 476 valid responses were collected using Qualtrics and Google Forms. The participants’ ages ranged from 18 years old to over 45 (M = 28.65, SD = 8.33). The quantitative data collected were analyzed descriptively and analyzed using the software of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) and SmartPLS software was used to verify the use of the software. Further, NVivo software was used during data analysis of the qualitative data collected. The study found that the behaviors of phubbing partners were slightly positively correlated with smartphone dependency, excessive use of digital media, FOMO, attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, and low self-esteem. Furthermore, partner phubbing behavior shows a positive correlation with conflict and jealousy, while it is negatively associated with relationship satisfaction, emotional intimacy, and relationship quality. The study indicates that a partner’s phubbing behavior negatively impacts the quality of romantic relationships.
Cognitive distortions are routinely described in cognitive-behavioral (CBT) and rational-emotive behavior (REBT) therapies as “errors in logic” or “illogical thinking.” While this terminology is pedagogically convenient, it often obscures a crucial conceptual distinction between violations of logical inference and problems related to the justification, scope, or evaluative force of belief content. In this paper, we do not claim that this distinction is novel within logic or philosophy. Rather, it argues that, despite its familiarity in formal disciplines, it is not consistently preserved in the language and practice of CBT and REBT, where “logical error” is frequently used in a broader and theoretically imprecise way. As a result, clinically relevant forms of distorted thinking are often mischaracterized as failures of inference rather than as instances of unjustified or overextended premises. Using syllogistic reconstruction as a descriptive tool, we show that many cognitive distortions preserve inferential validity while failing at the level of justification and proportionality, for example, because the underlying beliefs are too absolute, too sweeping, or not well supported by available evidence. Drawing on insights from paraconsistent logic, we further argue that human reasoning can tolerate limited inconsistency without collapsing into irrationality. Clarifying these distinctions has implications for theory, clinical communication, and cognitive restructuring. Specifically, it suggests that therapeutic interventions may be more precise and collaborative when they focus on examining and revising problematic premises rather than framing clients’ reasoning as logically defective.
This research aims to examine the relationship between Qur’anic exceptions and the foundational principles of REBT. It demonstrates that the Qur’an employs exception as a therapeutic and cognitive tool to shape human thinking and correct irrational beliefs, highlighting its role not only as a religious text but also as a comprehensive framework for adapting cognition and behavior. In contrast, REBT seeks to dispute irrational beliefs that lead to psychological distress and to replace them with more rational alternatives, revealing significant points of convergence between the Qur’an and REBT. In this context, exception is conceptualized as a mental process that enables individuals to adapt their understanding by distinguishing truth from illusion, paralleling the REBT process of disputing irrational beliefs. The Qur’anic exception thus functions as a divinely guided cognitive mechanism for adapting irrational ideas into rational ones. Each exception in the Qur’an serves both to challenge a widespread or erroneous assumption and to adapt the believer’s perspective toward a deeper and more accurate truth. The term “Ellā” (except) appears in its various forms more than 764 times in the Qur’an. The Qur’an helps individuals adapt their epistemic boundaries and avoid the delusion of possessing knowledge that belongs solely to Allah, in a way comparable to how an REBT therapist disputes irrational beliefs. The findings indicate that Qur’anic exceptions adapt irrational beliefs toward more rational and balanced modes of thinking, supporting their relevance for use in counseling and educational contexts to adapt rigid cognitive patterns.
Psychological flexibility is crucial in adolescent mental health by supporting effective stress management. The present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of sense of coherence in the relationship between psychological flexibility and positive youth development. Study I (N = 391; 58.1
Behavioral activation therapy has been increasingly used in depression intervention in recent years. It aims to increase the activation level and decrease the avoidance level. In this way, the individual's life satisfaction is expected to increase while trying to reduce depression. However, the relationship between depression and life satisfaction in behavioral activation therapy-based interventions has not been sufficiently revealed. Furthermore, the effects of activation and avoidance, which are the most basic concepts of behavioral activation therapy, and their underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Therefore, this study focused on this gap and aimed to explore the mediating roles of activation and avoidance variables in the relationship between depression and life satisfaction. Participants (N = 440) from a non-clinical sample group completed various self-report scales on depression, behavioral activation, and life satisfaction. Our results showed that depression and life satisfaction negatively predicted each other, and that activation and avoidance variables mediated this relationship in parallel. Accordingly, increasing activation and decreasing avoidance in young people with depressive symptoms may be an effective way to improve life satisfaction and reduce depression. Effective prevention efforts that reduce depression can increase the life satisfaction levels of young adults. In summary, behavioral activation and avoidance can be used to prevent depression and increase life satisfaction. The current study provides more information about the applicability of activation and avoidance, two important elements of behavioral activation therapy, in depression intervention.
This study examined associations between metacognitive processes and symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress among individuals caring for patients with chronic kidney disease undergoing dialysis treatment. Meta-worry, general worry, and thought fusion were evaluated as metacognitive correlates of emotional symptoms, and their representation within a shared latent metacognitive construct was tested. The potential role of treatment duration was also examined. This cross-sectional study included 121 caregivers and 123 control participants assessed using standardized self-report instruments. Group differences were examined using independent-samples t-tests and chi-square analyses. Associations among variables were evaluated using Pearson correlations and hierarchical regression analyses. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted in R using maximum likelihood estimation with 5,000 bias-corrected bootstrap resamples to obtain robust standard errors and confidence intervals. Missing data were handled using full-information maximum likelihood. A latent metacognitive model was compared with an alternative correlated-predictor specification using information criteria. Caregivers reported significantly higher levels of depression, anxiety, and stress compared to controls (p < .01). Meta-worry, general worry, and thought fusion were moderately to strongly associated with emotional symptoms (r = .45–0.75). Hierarchical regression analyses explained 65.6
In the past two decades, cyberbullying has attracted the attention of psychologists and researchers who have investigated the underlying factors of this phenomenon. Through path analysis, the present study examined how emotional schemas and the dark triad of personality traits relate to cyberbullying, with distress tolerance serving as a mediator. The sample comprised 737 students (68.1
Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) distinguishes between ego disturbance and discomfort disturbance as key mechanisms of emotional dysfunction. The present study introduces the Stressful Belief Index (SBI), a 30-item measure evaluating Approval Demand, Demands of Others, Life Demand (discomfort disturbance), and Perfection Demand. Data were gathered from 160 clinical clients. The SBI showed a clear four-factor structure with strong internal consistency across its subscales. Convergent validity was supported through correlations with the Burns Self-Defeating Beliefs Scale. Life Demand exhibited the strongest associations with both depression and anxiety and accounted for the largest portion of variance in hierarchical regression models. When discomfort disturbance was entered before ego disturbance, ego disturbance contributed minimal additional variance; the reverse was not observed. These findings suggest that discomfort disturbance may be a more central cognitive mechanism within the REBT framework of demandingness. The results are discussed in the context of contemporary scientific models of psychological disturbance, such as Feldman Barrett’s predictive modelling approach, and overlap with the historical themes of demandingness emphasized by Albert Ellis.
