Minority stress has a range of negative and protective outcomes for lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, and other sexual minority (LGBQ+) people. The internalization of societal stigma associated with sexual minority relationships may impact decisions related to outness and/or concealment of one's romantic relationship, which may affect the relationship. Building on previous research, we examined whether internalized stigma and sexual orientation concealment predicted lower romantic relationship satisfaction in LGBQ + people, and whether outness about one's sexual orientation predicted better relationship satisfaction. We also examined whether outness and concealment mediated internalized stigma's effects on relationship satisfaction. Hierarchical regression results (N = 214) demonstrated that internalized stigma was a significant negative predictor of relationship satisfaction, outness was a significant positive predictor, and concealment was not a unique predictor. Mediation analysis demonstrated that internalized stigma had a significant direct effect on relationship satisfaction, along with a significant indirect effect through lower outness. Although internalized stigma was associated with greater concealment, concealment did not mediate the relationship between it and relationship satisfaction. Kelley and Thibault's interdependence model, alongside minority stress theory, are used to understand these variables' effects on relationship satisfaction. Counseling and research implications are discussed.
Epidemiological studies suggest that more youth are identifying as gender expansive (e.g., transgender, gender nonconforming) than ever before. However, due to stressors like discrimination, gender minorities remain at significantly higher risk for mental and physical health problems than their cisgender peers. While initial research has shown that parental support of youth’s minority gender identities may be protective, further research is needed regarding specific parenting practices and their impact on children. We propose that parental conditional regard — the selective provision of warmth and esteem when children’s behavior conforms to parental standards or values — may be a critical component of parenting behaviors that predicts maladaptation in gender expansive children. Across three studies involving parents of cisgender and gender expansive children ages 3-15 (Study 1: N = 601, community sample; Study 2: N = 793, parents of gender expansive and cisgender children; Study 3, same sample as in Study 1), we describe the development of a novel measure of parental conditional regard for gender expression and test its validity and reliability. Finally, we demonstrate that conditional regard for gender expression is distinct from existing conditional regard measures, and is uniquely associated with children’s psychopathology.
Research has demonstrated that parental support is a key factor in protecting trans and nonbinary youth from elevated mental health risks including depression and suicide. However, little research has investigated what barriers prevent parents from supporting their child's trans or nonbinary identity or what helps facilitate parental support. A survey of 93 parents of trans and nonbinary youth identified common barriers and facilitators to support via checklists and open-ended questions. Common barriers to support were emotional barriers such as fear of their child being bullied or hurt; lack of knowledge/skills including difficulty adjusting to a new name or pronouns; beliefs and attitudes; and systems barriers such as lack of inclusive policies at their child's school. Common facilitators to support included receiving social support from other families of trans and nonbinary youth, educational and professional resources, communicating with their child, and exposure to trans communities. Additionally, this study examined patterns in barriers and facilitators across parents categorized by level of supportiveness into three groups: supportive, somewhat supportive, and unsupportive. Implications for targeting interventions to increase parental support and future directions for research are discussed.
The aim of the study was to explore the experiences and representations of Italian parents of TGE (Transgender and Gender-Expansive) adolescents diagnosed with gender dysphoria who, for the first time, attended a gender clinic for psychological consultation. This study presents findings from fifteen parents of TGE adolescents, mostly (93%) trans boys, aged 14-19. The analysis identified four main themes: Gender Dysphoria: Something Impossible to Understand, Resigned Acceptance, Strategies of social acceptance in a complex context and The Limits of Healthcare Services. Results are discussed in the light of a highly transphobic social and cultural context.
This qualitative study examined gay men's recalled conversations about sexual identity and sexual behaviors with both their mothers and fathers. Thirteen interviews with gay men, ages 19-30, were analyzed using the iterative inductive and deductive processes related to descriptive qualitative analysis. Results showed that parents initially assumed their sons were heterosexual, initially viewed homosexuality as a sin, engaged in conversations around sexual safety, and provided limited HIV information in these conversations. However, mothers approached these conversations with broader emotional reactions to their son's sexuality, while fathers displayed narrower sentimental ranges and provided more tangible, less emotional support for their sons. Though these mothers and fathers were accepting of their sons, they drew from their socialized gender experiences when engaging in these conversations. Recommendations guiding parents and children to start or continue in such conversations are provided.
Reductions in structural stigma, such as gaining access to legalized same-sex marriage, is associated with positive psychological and physical health outcomes among sexual minority adults. However, these positive outcomes may be less robust among sexual minority women (SMW; e.g., lesbian, bisexual, queer) than sexual minority men and new measures are needed to develop a more nuanced understanding of the impact of affirming policies on the health and well-being of SMW. This study assessed the psychometric properties of measures developed to assess the psychosocial impacts of legalized same-sex marriage on the lives of SMW. Participants (N=446) completed an online survey assessing the psychosocial impact of legalized same-sex marriage in five domains: 1) personal impact, 2) stigma-related concerns, 3) couple impact, 4) LGBTQ community impact, and 5) political/social environment. Psychometric properties of the scales were examined using traditional and Rasch analyses. Personal, concerns, couple, and political/social environment scales demonstrated high internal consistency (α > 0.80), and acceptable levels of reliability even when scales reduced to five items each. The LGBTQ community scale demonstrated adequate internal consistency (α = 0.79) and could only be reduced to 9 items. These scales may be useful in future studies of SMW health and well-being.
In the past few years, Ecuador has experienced legal changes toward the recognition of sexual minority rights. However, lesbian and gay (LG) individuals and couples still face legal obstacles to become parents and social barriers that place their families in disadvantage compared to their heterosexual counterparts. To date, it is not known whether the legal changes reflect society's move toward a more progressive and accepting climate. This study analyzed the attitudes toward LG parenting in an Ecuadorian online-recruited sample. Three hundred thirty-eight (338) participants answered an online questionnaire about the negative effects and the benefits of having LG parents. The strongest belief among participants was that children of LG parents would be victimized because of their parents' sexual orientation. Analyses indicated differences in attitudes based on age, sexual orientation, marital status, education level, as well as religiosity. Finally, regression models suggested that beliefs about the origins of sexual orientation and contact with LG people predicted attitude scores. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Abstract This study describes transgender and gender diverse (TGD) youth perceptions of parental messages regarding sexuality and sexual/romantic relationships and how those messages impact feelings and decisions about their sexual health. Eight in-depth, semi-structured interviews (mean = 66 minutes) with TGD young people (16-23 years) were included in this qualitative analysis. Illustrated by participant quotes, four themes are discussed: (1) parent’s sexual values as context and a critical testing ground, (2) LGBTQ sexuality, (3) youths’ futures through cisnormative and heteronormative lenses, and (4) impact of parental messaging on youth’s sexual health. Implications include working with families to de-center cisgender perspectives in messaging.
This article concerns childless bisexual and gay men's expectations of potential future fatherhood. Social context, biological prerequisites and legal restrictions have in previous research proven to be complicating factors in the process of starting a family. This article investigates the experience of 14 bisexual and gay men in Sweden who are contemplating parenthood. Semi-structured interviews were conducted. The interviews were analyzed using grounded theory methodology, resulting in a model that identified obstructing and enabling factors in realizing future parenthood. The path to parenthood was seen as a process containing both the decision to pursue parenthood and the belief that parenthood was a possibility. The process toward parthood was not linear, but a pendular movement, affected by obstructing factors and enabling factors. One of the main findings was the experience of invisibility in relation to involuntary childlessness amongst bisexual and gay men. Simultaneously, the possibility to break this invisibility, to become a parental role model for other bisexual and gay men, and to revise images of the nuclear family were strong motivating factors. The findings are discussed in relation to Swedish gay men and fathers' social situation.
Transgender and nonbinary (TNB) individuals may elect gender-affirming treatment that may affect their ability to have genetically-related children. The purpose of this study was to explore how the family-building goals of TNB college and graduate students shaped decisions about fertility preservation and gender-affirming care. Participants (N = 39) completed a phone interview and demographic survey about their experiences in higher education. Several themes developed as important in shaping TNB students' family-related desires, including gender-affirming treatment priorities, and partner and financial considerations. Therapists and medical professionals can support this population by expanding family planning counseling options and providing sufficient counseling on the effects of gender affirming care.
Abstract Minority stress has a range of negative and protective outcomes for lesbian, gay, bisexual, queer, and other sexual minority (LGBQ+) people. The internalization of societal stigma associated with sexual minority relationships may impact decisions related to outness and/or concealment of one’s romantic relationship, which may affect the relationship. Building on previous research, we examined whether internalized stigma and sexual orientation concealment predicted lower romantic relationship satisfaction in LGBQ + people, and whether outness about one’s sexual orientation predicted better relationship satisfaction. We also examined whether outness and concealment mediated internalized stigma's effects on relationship satisfaction. Hierarchical regression results (N = 214) demonstrated that internalized stigma was a significant negative predictor of relationship satisfaction, outness was a significant positive predictor, and concealment was not a unique predictor. Mediation analysis demonstrated that internalized stigma had a significant direct effect on relationship satisfaction, along with a significant indirect effect through lower outness. Although internalized stigma was associated with greater concealment, concealment did not mediate the relationship between it and relationship satisfaction. Kelley and Thibault’s interdependence model, alongside minority stress theory, are used to understand these variables' effects on relationship satisfaction. Counseling and research implications are discussed.
Before the so-called "gayby boom" in the 1990s the most common pathway to parenthood for gay men was heterosexual marriage. Since the 1990s most research on gay parenting has focused on intentional gay fathers - those parenting after coming out as gay - and the experiences of post-heterosexual divorce gay fathers (PHGF) have largely been overlooked, even though they remain the largest group of gay fathers. Furthermore, most research on this group, and on gay fathers more broadly, has been conducted in the US, with only a small handful of studies examining the experiences of gay fathers elsewhere. The current study aims to begin to address this omission by exploring the experiences of heterosexually divorced and separated UK gay fathers, focusing on their experiential journey from married, ostensibly heterosexual, men to living openly (more or less) as gay fathers. Transcripts of interviews with six white British men were analyzed using interpretative phenomenological analysis. Five themes are reported: (1) The impossibility of being openly gay; (2) "Drowning in normality"; (3) "The point of no return"; (4) The kids are alright; and (5) "It just doesn't seem to compute for people." The findings suggest that for some PHGF little has changed since the earliest research on this group of gay fathers was published in the 1970s. The men in this study had mostly experienced a tumultuous (and sometimes incomplete) journey to gay fatherhood and continued to struggle with feelings of shame and stigma.
There is a need for more research on the experiences of affirming parents of pre-adolescent transgender and gender non-conforming (TGNC) children. This study explores how parents conceptualized advocacy roles. Eleven parents of TGNC children age 13 and under completed semi-structured phone interviews. Ten parents considered themselves advocates, with digital advocacy being the most common. Advocacy motivations centered around parental concerns. Parents were divided on whether advocacy helped or had no impact on the parent-child relationship. The largest-shared concern was over the right to privacy. These findings have implications for mobilizing parents of TGNC youth as advocates.
The study engages with several lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, pansexual and queer (LGBTPQ) identifying youth in South Africa to explore their perceptions and realities regarding coming out to their parents and parental reactions. In-depth interviews were utilized to engage with the 17 participants, aged 19 to 32 years old, all of whom were students at the same university in South Africa. The study found that participants who have not come out tended to view coming out as a problematic act that reproduces the heteronormative discourse of sexuality in which heterosexuality is normalized, while same-sex sexuality is seen as odd and as deviant. The study also found that many participants perceived coming out as an individual choice. However, the choice of whether or not to come out, when to come out, and which parent to come out to, is dependent on 1. the nature of the relationship the participants have with their parents, and 2. perceived parental reactions. Analysis reveals how religion, gender norms based on heteronormativity, and parent-child relationship dynamics intersect to shape participants' perceptions regarding parental reactions. This intersectionality also shaped the realities of coming out. Such realities involved a variety of reactions from parents, including acceptance, rejection, forms of violence, and silence. Parents reacting with silence was a common, yet complex experience among the participants. The participants' experiences suggest ways through which they could be empowered to cope better with their parents' silence and other non-supportive reactions.
This study concerns how male and female same-sex couples across countries organize their paid and household labor. Using unique data compiled from multiple national surveys in 7 western countries (N = 723), we examined same-sex couples' paid and household task allocation and evaluate descriptively how this is associated with countries' gender egalitarianism. For paid labor, results indicate that female same-sex couples spend less time in total on paid employment than male same-sex couples, but both male and female same-sex couples divide their hours of paid employment equally. For household labor, we find that female couples divide their household tasks more equally than male couples. Moreover, more gender egalitarian countries appear to be correlated to increasing differences between male and female same-sex couples' total time spent on the labor market and to decreasing differences in how equal they divide their household labor. These findings suggest that larger, society-wide, gender regimes might be an important avenue for future research when studying same-sex couples paid and unpaid labor.
There is a growing need for culturally specific information regarding the intersections of religion, spirituality, and various sexual orientations/attractions. In this article, we attempt to provide clinicians, scholars, advocacy groups, and religious organizations with salient information regarding the psychological and interpersonal functioning of current and former members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS) who identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, questioning/queer, or are same-sex attracted (LGBQ/SSA). First, an overview of LDS historical events and doctrinal teachings related to LGBQ/SSA issues is presented to increase cultural competence specific to this population. Second, we provide a narrative review of the known empirical literature on this population (i.e.,N = 33 empirical articles and dissertations, which comprise a range of quantitative/mixed methods (n = 19) and qualitative (n = 14) studies. Finally, recommendations for practice and future research are offered. ,
This article explores the perceptions of Millennial-age LBGTQ + individuals raised in conservative Christian families (Seventh-day Adventist) about their coming out experiences with family members. The analysis examines six strategies that participants identified as helping regain family equilibrium post-coming out. These strategies included: parent's expression of unconditional love, passing of time, having a long-term relationship with a partner, communicating openly with parents, creating distance and independence from parents, and avoiding the LGBTQ + topic entirely.
As more queer cisgender women and gender-expansive individuals become parents, research must consider current barriers to family formation. This study used a modified grounded theory approach to conduct 22 semi-structured interviews aimed at understanding the role of queer identity in pregnancy desires and decisions among individuals assigned female at birth (AFAB) who identify as queer. Numerous individual, relationship, and structural factors informed pregnancy desires, the choice to seek pregnancy, and experiences with pregnancy. Supporting queer individuals in a range of pregnancy and parenting options is vital to fully recognizing queer individuals as participants in a fundamental human experience-family building.
Queer Kinship and Family Change in Taiwan, by Amy Brainer, delves deeply into the relationships among queer people and their families-of-origin, exploring the ways in which gender and sexuality int...
Parental support plays a vital role in protecting trans youth from mental health risks including depression, anxiety, substance use, and suicide. This study examined the acceptability of the Parent Support Program, an online intervention aimed at increasing transgender affirming behaviors. The Parent Support Program includes three modules with psychoeducational text, affirming images, educational videos, videos of parents and trans youth, writing activities, and interactive quizzes. The program content and structure were developed based on psychological theories of behavior change and relevant research. Feedback was collected from two focus groups with parents of transgender youth and experts in transgender mental health. This pilot study found that the intervention was highly acceptable and provided useful information on how to improve the intervention in preparation for a larger efficacy study. Improvements include making the intervention more tailored to the participant and modifying writing exercises. Implications for future research and practice with this population are discussed.
