Talent identification (TID) in team sports is complex, influenced by biological, technical, psychological, and socio-cultural factors. Machine learning (ML) offers tools to integrate high-dimensional data, yet its applications in youth TID remain underexplored. Objectives: To systematically review ML approaches applied to youth talent identification in team sports, with emphasis on data domains, algorithms, validation strategies, and interpretability. Eligible studies included peer-reviewed quantitative research applying ML to youth athletes (≤21 years) in team sports for TID outcomes. Searches were conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science, supplemented by reference and citation screening. Extracted data items included input data domains (anthropometric, physical, technical, perceptual-cognitive, psychological, socio-cultural, and multi-domain), ML approach, validation methods, performance metrics (e.g., accuracy, AUC, F1-score), and interpretability techniques. Risk-of-bias assessment was implemented using PROBAST. From 228 records, 27 studies met inclusion criteria. Soccer was most studied (n = 13), with others covering rugby, basketball, cricket, volleyball, and Australian football. Sample sizes ranged from 21 to 13,876 athletes, predominantly male. Supervised algorithms (Random Forest, gradient boosting, neural networks, penalized regression) were most common; some studies used unsupervised clustering. Validation practices varied, with few employing nested cross-validation or external testing. Reported discrimination metrics ranged from modest to excellent (ROC-AUC ≈ 0.58-0.96, depending on model and context), yet calibration performance (e.g., Brier score, calibration slope) was rarely reported, and external validation was uncommon. Across studies, predictive accuracy was moderate to high internally but rarely externally confirmed. Risk of bias was high in 59 % of studies, mainly due to inadequate analysis and limited generalizability. Overall, ML shows potential to complement, not replace, traditional TID approaches - acting as a decision-support and hypothesis-generation tool that can assist practitioners in early screening, individualized progression modeling, and evidence-based talent forecasting. To strengthen translational impact, future research should emphasize transparent reporting, calibration assessment, and external validation to ensure robust, applicable ML models for sport talent systems.
This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of using deadlift load-velocity (L-V) relationship variables, specifically the load-intercept (L0 ), to monitor resistance training intensity. Fifteen well-trained male and fifteen well-trained female athletes completed two incremental load tests, recording movement mean velocity (MV) until reaching one repetition maximum (1RM) in two sessions. Although L0 (CV = 4.98%, ICC = 0.974) demonstrated lower between-session reliability than 1RM (CV = 3.48%, ICC = 0.989), its reliability was still at an acceptable level. Furthermore, the 1RM/L0 ratio showed acceptable between-subjects variability (CV = 6.39%). Consequently, L0 could serve as an alternative reference for prescribing training intensity in place of the 1RM. Both the %1RM-MV and %L0 -MV relationships were found to be valid for monitoring training intensity in the high-intensity range (absolute error ≤ 4.05%, at around 80% and 90%1RM) but not in the low-intensity range (absolute error ≥ 6.31%, from 40% to 70%1RM). Although not a complete replacement for the 1RM, the %L0 - MV relationship still offers a practical and convenient method for monitoring deadlift training in high-intensity range (above 80%1RM), particularly in settings where frequent assessments are required.
Non-contact Lower limb sports injuries represent some of the most prevalent and impactful conditions within athletic populations, prompting increasing interest in predictive approaches that can inform prevention and rehabilitation strategies. With its capacity to manage high-dimensional and complex datasets, machine learning (ML) has emerged as a promising tool for injury risk prediction. This systematic review, conducted in accordance with PRISMA 2020 guidelines, synthesized evidence from studies retrieved through Web of Science, PubMed, and SPORTDiscus (EBSCO). The literature search was conducted on January 20, 2025. Following independent screening and risk of bias assessment using the PROBAST tool, 15 studies were included from an initial pool of 92. The majority of study populations comprised adult athletes, with basketball and football (soccer) being the most frequently investigated sports. Random Forest and logistic regression were the most commonly applied algorithms, while tree-based approaches yielded the strongest predictive performance in 6 studies. Across 14 studies, area under the curve (AUC) values were reported, with one CHAID-based decision tree achieving the highest performance (AUC = 0.91), and sensitivity values reaching up to 0.92 in eight studies. Importantly, model interpretability was addressed in 87% of included studies, underscoring its emerging importance for clinical translation. Overall, ML exhibits considerable potential in predicting non-contact lower-limb injuries, but its practical value depends on achieving a balance between accuracy, transparency, and reliability. Future research should emphasize the integration of multi-source data and large-scale prospective validation to advance the translation of ML models into precision injury prevention and rehabilitation practice.
This study investigated the dose-response relationship between structured physical activity frequency and improvements in physical fitness in preschool children. Sixty-three children (3-6 years) were divided according to weekly participation frequency in a 12-week structured physical training program (60 min/session): low frequency (L, ≤1 session/week), moderate frequency (M, 1-2 sessions/week), moderate-to-high frequency (MH, 2-3 sessions/week), and high frequency (H, ≥3 sessions/week). Physical fitness was assessed before and after the intervention using six standardized motor tests. These tests included walking the balance beam, 10 m × 2 shuttle run, tennis throwing, continuous jumping with both feet, standing long jump, and sit-and-reach. A 2 (Time: pre- vs post-intervention) × 4 (Group: L/M/MH/H) repeated-measures ANOVA was used to analyze changes within and between groups.Significant time × group interactions were found for walking the balance beam, 10 m × 2 shuttle run, tennis throwing, continuous jumping with both feet, and standing long jump (p < 0.05), but not for sit-and-reach flexibility. Post-hoc analyses revealed that the H group performed better than L across all five indicators and outperformed M in the 10 m × 2 shuttle run, tennis throwing, and standing long jump (p < 0.05). The MH group demonstrated better performance than the L group in the balance beam walk, 10 m × 2 shuttle run, and tennis throwing. However, no significant differences were observed between the MH and H groups at post-test. These findings indicate that participating in structured physical activity fewer than two sessions per week is insufficient to enhance preschool children's physical fitness. In contrast, engagement at least twice per week significantly improves key indicators of strength, coordination, and agility. However, performance reach a performance plateau when frequency exceeds three sessions per week, suggesting diminishing marginal returns. Incorporating moderate-to-high frequency structured physical activity into preschool curricula may thus be an efficient strategy for optimizing fitness development in early childhood. Taken together, these findings emphasize the need for at least two weekly sessions of structured physical activity to effectively enhance physical fitness in preschool children.
Stretching research and practice relies heavily on internal and clinical perceptions of stretching sensation to prescribe intensity due to the lack of equipment required. No research has assessed the relationship between internal and external perceptions of stretch intensity. The purpose of this study was to assess the relationship between participants' stretch sensation and researchers' perception of muscle tension in two passive stretches; supine hip flexion and shoulder extension. Training status and stretching experience were considered with the 18 young adult participants. Joint angles at which participants signaled initial stretch sensation and maximum tolerable stretch for each protocol were recorded by a secondary researcher. The blinded primary researcher recorded joint angles where initial tension and maximum tension were perceived as they executed passive stretching of the participant. While there was evidence of greater hip flexion ROM for women, athletes, participants with stretching experience, as well as with stretching to maximum versus initial point of discomfort, there were no significant differences between the participants and researcher's measurements at initial or maximum endpoints, however correlation and agreement between participant and researcher perceptions were variable. There was an overall large magnitude (eta2 = 0.794), non-significant difference (p = 0.06) with researcher maximum (108.39° ± 17.22) hip flexion measurements higher than participants (98.6° ± 20.08). This mean difference was more apparent with the greater divergence with less trained individuals and stretching experience. Shoulder extension ROM did not reveal any group differences (i.e., sex, trained state, stretch experience). This research demonstrated excellent reliability overall of participant and researcher perceptions for hip flexion and shoulder stretches with lower correlations for sedentary and inexperienced individuals. Results highlight the need for training status and stretching experience to be considered in stretching intensity prescription and scale development.
Based on the muscle synergy theory, this study aimed to investigate the lower limb coordination strategies and their individual variations during table tennis players’ forehand topspin strokes. Surface electromyography (sEMG) signals were recorded from eight ipsilateral lower limb muscles in ten players. Non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) was applied to extract motor module composition and temporal activation patterns. Inter-individual similarity was evaluated using K-means clustering and cosine similarity. The results showed that: (1) Lower limb muscle synergy modules could be classified into three clusters: Cluster 1 (rectus femoris/vastus medialis), Cluster 2 (gluteus maximus/ gluteus medius/ biceps femoris/ tibialis anterior), and Cluster 3 (lateral gastrocnemius/ soleus). The composition of motor modules exhibited high inter-individual similarity across clusters, with Cluster 2 demonstrating significantly greater consistency than other clusters (p < 0.01); (2) Cluster 2 and Cluster 1 reached peak activation during the early and mid-late forward phases, respectively, while Cluster 3 showed double peak activation during the backswing and backward phases. Considerable inter-individual variability was observed in temporal activation patterns, with Cluster 2 demonstrating significantly lower similarity than Cluster 3 (p < 0.01); (3) Activation areas differed significantly between stroke phases, with Cluster 2 greater than Cluster 3 in forward phase, while Cluster 3 higher than Cluster 2 in backward phase. The findings indicated that: The lower limb utilized three fundamental muscle synergy patterns during table tennis forehand topspin strokes. These synergies demonstrated phase-specific functional roles while maintaining temporal coordination. Athletes can optimize their performance by precisely adjusting temporal parameters while maintaining a standardized lower-limb movement structure, a regulatory capability particularly evident during the forward phase.
Using a randomized, counter-balanced cross-over design in under-19 male soccer players, this study examined whether within-player cardiovascular load variability during small-sided games (SSGs) is more strongly associated with game format (3v3 vs 5v5), intermittent aerobic capacity, or the mean heart-rate intensity achieved across bouts. Sixty players (17-19 years) completed two weeks of SSGs, performing four 3-min bouts per format with 2-min recovery. Heart rate (HR) was recorded continuously. Cardiovascular variability for each format was quantified for each player as the coefficient of variation of bout-level HRmean across the four 3-min bouts (CV% = SD/mean × 100). Intermittent aerobic capacity was assessed using the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1). Linear mixed-effects modelling examined the independent associations between format, Yo-Yo IR1 performance, mean HR intensity, and CV% was log-transformed to address skewness and improve model residuals. Paired comparisons showed that HRmean was higher in 3v3 than in 5v5 (p < 0.001), whereas between-player variability (CV%) was higher in 5v5 than in 3v3. Specifically, CV% was 1.97 ± 0.81% in 3v3 versus 2.61 ± 1.21% in 5v5, while mean HR intensity was 180.9 ± 2.8 bpm in 3v3 compared with 173.6 ± 3.6 bpm in 5v5. The mixed model indicated that mean HR intensity was the only significant predictor of cardiovascular variability (β = -0.027, 95% CI = -0.050 to -0.005, p = 0.019). Neither SSG format (β = 0.056, p = 0.618) nor Yo-Yo IR1 performance (β = -0.00008, p = 0.385) were significant predictors. The fixed-effects structure explained 13.6% of the variance (marginal R2 = 0.136). Within the training conditions studied, higher mean HR intensity was associated with lower bout-to-bout HR variability. However, the fixed effects explained a modest proportion of variance, indicating that additional unmeasured factors likely contribute to cardiovascular load variability.
This study examined the reliability and accuracy of various velocity-based methods for predicting the snatch one-repetition maximum (1RM), with the purpose of evaluating the potential of movement velocity as an objective indicator for attempt selection in competitive weightlifting. Fourteen competitive adolescent male weightlifters (age: 15.9 ± 0.9 years; training experience: 5.1 ± 0.9 years) completed two testing sessions, each involving an incremental loading test with attempts at 50%, 70%, 80%, and 90% of their best snatch record from the past 30 days, followed by load increases until reaching their actual 1RM. Peak velocity (PV) was recorded for all lifts with a linear position transducer. The 1RM in the second session was predicted using the load-PV relationship derived from four loads, combined with either the actual or optimal minimal velocity threshold (MVT) obtained in the first session. Additionally, 1RM was estimated from PV recorded at single loads (50%, 70%, 80%, and 90% 1RM), using the individual %1RM-PV relationship established during the first session. Acceptable between-sessions reliability was observed for the actual 1RM, PV tested at single loads (50-90% 1RM), actual MVT, and optimal MVT (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.76-0.90, coefficient of variation = 1.82-3.31%). The actual MVT, optimal MVT and individual %1RM-PV relationship using 80% and 90% 1RM yielded acceptable and lower absolute errors (2.6-4.1 kg) compared to individual %1RM-PV relationship using 50% and 70% 1RM (6.2-9.9 kg). However, these methods exhibited proportional bias (p = 0.002-0.018). Furthermore, heteroscedasticity was observed for the actual MVT and 90% 1RM methods (p = 0.022-0.026). These results suggest that recording PV during warm-up sets prior to competition may serve as a complementary variable to support and refine opener selection in weightlifting competitions. However, weightlifting coaches should use this approach with caution, as it may not provide accurate snatch performance predictions for all athletes.
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a 6-week combined power-based resistance training (RT) and short sprint interval training (SSIT), performed in different sequences (SSIT+RT or RT+SSIT), on the lower-body physical fitness of male Judo athletes. Twenty-four young male athletes volunteered for this study and were randomly assigned to one of three groups: SSIT+RT, RT+SSIT, or an active control (CON) group, with eight athletes in each group. The training groups participated in a 6-week intervention, training three times per week during the preparatory phase of annual training cycle. Following the intervention, both the SSIT+RT and RT+SSIT groups showed significant improvements (p = 0.001) in several performance measures including vertical jump (effect size [ES] = 1.58 and 0.85), 20-m linear sprint (ES =-1.22 and-0.53), Agility Ttest (ES =-1.12 and-0.46), maximal strength (ES = 0.15 and 0.21), Specific Judo Fitness Test (SJFT; ES =-0.91 and-0.90), peak power (ES = 1.74 and 1.18), mean power (ES = 0.98 and 1.11), and cardiorespiratory fitness (ES =1.17 and 1.03). In contrast, the CON group did not exhibit any significant changes post-training. Moreover, the SSIT+RT group demonstrated significantly greater improvements compared to the RT+SSIT group in vertical jump (ES = 0.62, p = 0.024), 20-m linear sprint (ES =-0.46, p = 0.031), Agility T-test (ES =-0.34, p = 0.016), and peak power output (ES = 0.79, p = 0.009). Conversely, the RT+SSIT group showed more pronounced strength gains than the SSIT+RT group (ES = 0.14, p = 0.007). In conclusion, it is recommended that incorporating SSIT at the beginning of a training session is more effective for improving jumping ability, sprinting speed, change of direction, and peak power output. Conversely, if the primary goal is to enhance muscular strength, it is advisable to prioritize RT at the start of the session.
Small-sided games (SSGs) are widely used in basketball, yet the specific recovery demands imposed by different SSG formats remain unclear. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare acute and short-term physiological and neuromuscular responses following scoring-oriented SSG using baskets (SSGbasket), possession-oriented (SSGpossession), and a control condition with no SSGs conducted (CON). Thirty-six trained basketball players completed all three conditions in a randomized crossover repeated-measures design. Salivary creatine kinase (CK), pressure pain threshold (PPT), visual analogue scale (VAS) soreness, and reactive strength index (RSI) were assessed at baseline, post, 24 h, and 48 h. There were significant condition × time interactions for CK (p < 0.001), PPT (p < 0.001), VAS (p < 0.001), and RSI (p < 0.001). CK increased most in SSGbasket, exceeding SSGpossession and CON at 24 h and 48 h (all p < 0.001). PPT decreased significantly at all post-exercise time points in SSGbasket and SSGpossession compared with CON (all p < 0.01), with SSGbasket showing the lowest values at 24 h (p < 0.001). VAS soreness was substantially higher in SSGbasket vs. the other conditions immediately post, at 24 h, and at 48 h (all p < 0.001). RSI decreased significantly from baseline in all formats (p < 0.001), but impairments were largest and most prolonged after SSGbasket compared with SSGpossession and CON (all p < 0.001). In conclusion, scoring-oriented SSGbasket elicits larger changes in salivary CK, soreness, and neuromuscular function than possession-oriented SSGbasket or the control training day used in this protocol, requiring careful scheduling within the basketball microcycle.
Adopting specificity in practice, combined with conditioning, can be an especially effective approach to optimizing training for tennis players. However, little is known about the use of different tennis formats in conditioning drills. The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of singles versus doubles high-intensity interval training (HIIT) tennis training on the aerobic and anaerobic performance of young tennis players, while also evaluating both formats against traditional off-court HIIT training. A randomized parallel controlled study was conducted with 48 male youth tennis players (16.8 ± 0.8 years). The intervention lasted 6 weeks and was carried out twice a week, with singles and doubles HIIT performed in match-play format without serving, while regular HIIT consisted of running (regHIIT). Measurements were taken at baseline and post-intervention, including the Wingate Anaerobic Test (to determine peak and mean power output and decrement), the Hit and Turn Tennis Test (to estimate maximal oxygen uptake, VO2max), and the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (VIFT). Using ANCOVA, the Group effect was significant for Wingate peak power. Singles-HIIT exceeded doubles-HIIT (Δ = 0.85 W·kg-1, 95% CI 0.63-1.08; p < 0.001, Holm), regHIIT (Δ = 0.80 W·kg-1, 0.58-1.02; p < 0.001), and control (Δ = 1.79 W·kg-1, 1.57-2.02; p < 0.001); doubles-HIIT and regHIIT did not differ (p = 0.620). For mean power, singles-HIIT was higher than doubles-HIIT (Δ = 1.07 W·kg-1, 0.80-1.34; p < 0.001), regHIIT (Δ = 1.00 W·kg-1, 0.74-1.27; p < 0.001), and control (Δ = 1.60 W·kg-1, 1.33-1.87; p < 0.001); both doubles-HIIT and regHIIT exceeded control (Δ = 0.53-0.60 W·kg-1; both p < 0.001). VO2max and VIFT improved similarly across all HIIT formats versus control (VO2max Δ = 2.10-2.13 mL·kg-1·min-1; VIFT Δ = 0.98-1.01 km·h-1; all p < 0.001), with no differences among HIIT formats (all p ≥ 0.90). In this randomized trial, singles-HIIT produced greater gains in anaerobic performance—showing higher adjusted post-test Wingate peak and mean power—than doubles-HIIT or regHIIT, under the present unmatched-intensity conditions. Aerobic adaptations (VO2max and VIFT) improved similarly across all HIIT formats and were superior to control. Therefore, singles-HIIT may be preferable when the primary goal is to enhance anaerobic power, whereas any of the three formats can be effectively used for aerobic conditioning, depending on logistical and sport-specific considerations. These inferences apply to the present on-court HIIT protocol in youth players and should be generalized cautiously to other sexes, ages, training levels, and court surfaces.
This study aimed to compare the effects of low-load circuit training (LL-CT) and moderate-load circuit training (ML-CT) on physical performance adaptations, hormonal responses, and hematological parameters in resistance-trained men. Thirty-two resistance-trained males (age 20.31 ± 1.00 y) were randomly assigned to three groups: LL-CT (n = 11), ML-CT (n = 11), or CON (n = 10). Participants in the training groups performed two sessions per week for 8 weeks. Both protocols consisted of four rounds of five exercises in a circuit format with a 30 s work:30 s rest duty cycle and 2-min inter-set rest. Exercise intensity was prescribed as 30% 1RM (LL-CT) or 70% 1RM (ML-CT), where 1RM was determined for four lifts: power clean, back squat, bench press, and deadlift. Loads during each exercise were expressed as a percentage of that exercise's own 1RM. Pre- and post-intervention measures included one-repetition maximum in the back squat and bench press (kg); countermovement jump and squat jump height (cm); 30-m sprint time (s); 505 change-of-direction time (s); peak power (W) and relative peak power (W·kg-1); and maximal oxygen uptake VO2max (mL·kg-1·min-1). Blood samples were collected to analyze resting hormone levels and hematological profiles. Both the LL-CT and ML-CT groups showed significant improvements in 1RM, CMJ, SJ, 30-m sprint, 505 agility, PP, and VO2max (p < 0.05), whereas the CON group only improved in squat 1RM (p < 0.05). No significant differences were observed in RPP across all three groups (p > 0.05). Between-group comparisons revealed that only 1RM showed significant superiority in the training groups compared to CON (p < 0.05), with no significant differences observed in other performance outcomes (p > 0.05). Both LL-CT and ML-CT resulted in significant increases in total testosterone (T) and mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration (MCHC) (p < 0.05), while only ML-CT showed a significant improvement in hemoglobin (HB). No significant changes were observed in red blood cell (RBC) count, white blood cell (WBC) count, red cell distribution width (RDW), or hematocrit (HCT) across groups. Under comparable hormonal responses and hematological adaptations, LL-CT demonstrated greater mechanical efficiency while achieving physical performance improvements equivalent to those of moderate-load training.
Since its launch, the chatbot ChatGPT has gained significant popularity and may serve as a valuable resource for evidence-based exercise training advice. However, its capability to provide accurate and actionable exercise training information has not been systematically evaluated. This study assessed ChatGPT's proficiency by comparing its responses to those of human personal trainers. Nine currently active level 4 (European Qualification Framework (EQF)) personal trainers (PTs) submitted their most frequently asked exercise training questions along with their own answers to them, and these questions were then posed to ChatGPT (version 3.5). Responses from both sources were evaluated by 18 PTs and 9 topic experts, who rated them on scientific correctness, actionability, and comprehensibility. Scores for each criterion were averaged into an overall score, and group means were compared using permutation tests. ChatGPT outperformed PTs in six of nine questions overall, with higher ratings in scientific correctness (5/9), comprehensibility (6/9), and actionability (5/9). In contrast, none of the responses from PTs were higher than those from ChatGPT for any question or metric. Our results suggest that ChatGPT can be used as a tool to answer questions that are frequently asked to PTs, and that chatbots may be useful for delivering informational support relating to physical exercise.
Dyslipidemia is a major contributor to cardiovascular disease. The C-reactive protein - triglyceride - glucose index (CTI), which reflects insulin resistance and systemic inflammation, has increasingly been recognized as a potential marker for metabolic disturbances. However, its predictive value for incident dyslipidemia remains uncertain, and the role of physical activity in this association requires further clarification. This study prospectively examined the association between CTI and the risk of dyslipidemia, and further assessed whether physical activity modifies this relationship in middle-aged and older Chinese adults. A total of 7,954 participants aged ≥45 years without dyslipidemia at baseline were enrolled, using data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (2011-2020). Physical activity was assessed using the CHARLS physical activity questionnaire, which captures the frequency and duration of vigorous, moderate, and light activities. Based on the frequency and duration of these activities, participants were categorized into low, moderate, and high physical activity groups. CTI was derived from high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, fasting plasma glucose, and triglyceride levels. Incident dyslipidemia was defined based on abnormal lipid profiles, ongoing lipid-lowering treatment, or a physician’s clinical diagnosis. Cox proportional hazards regression with restricted cubic splines was applied to evaluate associations, with stratified analyses by sex, age, and physical activity level. During 10 years of follow-up, 2,011 new cases of dyslipidemia were recorded. Each 1-unit increase in CTI corresponded to approximately a 9% higher risk of dyslipidemia (HR = 1.09, 95% CI: 1.01-1.18). Individuals in the highest CTI quartile had a 15% greater risk compared with those in the lowest quartile (HR = 1.15, 95% CI: 1.01-1.30). Stronger associations were observed in men (HR = 1.20, 95% CI: 1.05-1.36) and adults aged 45-59 years (HR = 1.22, 95% CI: 1.08-1.39), whereas no significant effect was found in women. When stratified by physical activity, a 1-unit CTI increase was linked to about a 10% higher risk in the light and moderate activity groups, and to a 28% higher risk in the vigorous activity group, with risk plateauing at higher CTI levels. Elevated CTI was prospectively associated with an increased risk of dyslipidemia, particularly in men and individuals in midlife. Physical activity appeared to influence this relationship, suggesting that CTI could serve as a practical marker for early risk stratification. These findings underscore the importance of regular exercise in preventing dyslipidemia.
This study examined the effects of vibrating foam rollers (VR) on delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), inflammatory response, and athletic performance. Eighteen experienced adult runners (average running experience: 6 years) participated in a crossover study with three recovery interventions: vibrating roller (VR), non-vibrating roller (NVR), and static stretching (SS). DOMS was induced through downhill treadmill running. Each intervention targeted four muscle groups bilaterally (gluteal, anterior/posterior thigh, anterior/posterior calf) for 30 seconds per group using a vibration frequency of 28 Hz for the VR condition. Blood samples were taken at baseline (T0), 24 hours (T24), and 48 hours (T48) post-exercise to assess creatine kinase (CK), C-reactive protein (CRP), and interleukin-6 (IL-6). Lower limb flexibility, muscle stiffness, vertical jump performance, and Y-balance test (YBT) were also measured. Eleven participants experienced DOMS and completed studies. No significant interaction effects were observed for any outcome variable. Hamstrings flexibility, YBT scores, and CK levels showed significant time effects, indicating natural recovery over 48 hours. Group differences in CK and YBT remained unchanged over time, indicating no intervention was more effective. In addition, muscle stiffness, jump performance, CRP, and IL-6 levels did not differ between interventions. VR, NVR, and SS produced similar short-term recovery outcomes, with no intervention showing clear superiority. Overall, the changes observed within 48 hours reflected general physiological recovery rather than distinct benefits from any specific intervention.
The 2024 Paris Paralympic triathlon required swimming with and against the current which requested to adapt stroke mechanics. To understand how a Paralympic triathlete champion might adapt his stroke mechanics under varying current conditions, this study aimed to 1) determine the range and optimal stroke rate (SR) and index of coordination (IdC); 2) examine the flexibility of SR, IdC and associated total energy expenditure. The para triathlete performed two front crawl tests: 10 times 25m incremented in swimming speed (S), from which S-SR and S-IdC relationships have been modelled to detect two regimes of functioning and the most effective SR; then, 6 times 50 m at the speed of the 800 m freestyle using 6 different SR conditions: spontaneous SR (SRs), SRs imposed by tempo trainer, SRs+3, SRs+6, SRs-3 and SRs-6 cycles. Total energy expenditure was computed from post-exercise oxygen uptake and blood lactate measurements. In test 1, the highest effective SR equals 44 cycle.min-1, which corresponds to the preferred SR in 800 m freestyle competition. In test 2, the para triathlete struggled to perform the high SR conditions, which was associated to higher total energy expenditure; conversely, the para triathlete naturally decreased SR. It is advised to modulate SR around the preferred SR to optimise efficiency under varying current conditions.
Agility, characterized by rapid whole-body movement in response to external stimuli, is a key performance determinant in team sports owing to its reliance on perception-action coupling. Despite its importance, existing evidence on training effects is disproportionately focused on change-of-direction ability, overlooking the perceptual-cognitive demands of true agility. This systematic review therefore sought to quantify the effects of agility-specific training, examine moderators and establish dose-response model in team-sport players, while accounting for perception-action coupling. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, systematic searches were conducted in Web of Science, Scopus and PubMed for peer-reviewed English-language studies. Risk of bias was appraised using a modified Cochrane Collaboration’s tool and study quality was evaluated via a tailored PEDro scale. Effect size (ES) was calculated using Hedge’s g, and dependencies among multiple ESs within studies were addressed through three-level meta-analysis. Subgroup analyses and both linear and non-linear meta-regressions were performed to examine potential moderators and establish dose-response models. Twenty-eight studies met the inclusion criteria, of which 26 contributed 53 ESs to quantitative analyses. Agility training produced a large improvement in reactive agility test (RAT) performance (ES = 0.65, p < 0.01), a moderate improvement in pre-planned agility test (PAT) performance (ES = 0.55, p < 0.01), and a non-significant moderate effect in reaction test (RT) outcomes (ES = 0.52, p > 0.05). Training effects were moderated by participants’ characteristics, with junior athletes (ES = 0.77, p < 0.05) and national level athletes (ES = 0.80, p < 0.05) demonstrating greater responses. However, female and mix-gender samples were underrepresented, and the evidence base was dominated by studies in soccer and basketball. Dose-response modelling revealed a curvilinear relationship between training duration and RAT (QM = 11.64, p < 0.01), peaking at 7-8 weeks and a positive linear association between training frequency and RAT (β = 0.172, p < 0.01). No significant relationship was observed between session time and RAT (p > 0.05), although most positive ESs clustered around 20-25 minutes per training session. Agility training exerts a large overall effect on RAT performance in team-sport players, with outcomes moderated by age and training status. Interventions of 7-8 weeks delivered at higher frequency (> 3 times/week) with 20-25 minutes session duration are frequently associated with favorable adaptions. These recommendations, however, should be interpreted cautiously given the moderate-to-low certainty of evidence, high within-study variability, dominance of soccer and basketball samples and potential risk of publication bias.
Tendinopathies are prevalent in athletic populations, particularly in sports requiring repetitive high-load activities. Eccentric training is widely recommended for rehabilitation, yet variability in protocols and inconsistent methodological reporting limit standardization. This scoping review aimed to map existing evidence on eccentric training for tendinopathies in athletes, characterize intervention parameters, evaluate clinical outcomes and safety, and identify methodological gaps to inform future practice and research. Searches of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were conducted. Eligible studies included athletes with tendinopathy undergoing eccentric training interventions. Randomized and non-randomized controlled trials were considered. Data extraction included intervention design, tendon site, loading parameters, outcomes, and adverse events. Critical appraisal was performed using RoB 2 and ROBINS-I tools. Thirty-one studies were included. Most examined patellar tendinopathy in volleyball and basketball players or Achilles tendinopathy in runners and soccer athletes. Protocols varied substantially in load, frequency, and progression strategies. Pain monitoring was integral, often allowing exercise into moderate discomfort. Eccentric training consistently improved pain and function, with heavy slow resistance and adjunct modalities showing comparable or additive effects. Return-to-sport rates were high, and adverse events were minimal. However, performance outcomes, tendon structure, and safety reporting were inconsistently assessed. Eccentric training consistently reduces pain and improves function in athletes with tendinopathy. Evidence is less consistent regarding performance outcomes, tendon remodeling, and comparative superiority over alternative interventions. Standardized reporting of protocols, safety, and sport-specific adaptations is needed to strengthen recommendations for athletic rehabilitation.
This study aimed to compare the effects of small-sided games (SSG) and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on the physical health and fitness of sedentary, untrained young adults. A 16-week randomized controlled trial was conducted with 90 participants (mean age 19.82 ± 0.66 years; 45 males and 45 females), who were randomly assigned in a 1:1:1 ratio to either the SSG group, the HIIT group, or a non-training control group (CG). Each group included 30 participants, and all participants completed the intervention. All interventions were performed three times per week. The SSG group participated in 4v4 or 6v6 handball games, while the HIIT group completed 30-30 (30 s sprint/30 s active recovery) or 40-20 (40 s sprint/20 s active recovery) protocols on an outdoor rubber track at 80-85% of their maximum heart rate (HRmax). Measured outcomes included physiological indicators (body weight, body mass index [BMI], systolic/diastolic blood pressure [SBP/DBP], and resting heart rate [RHR]) and fitness indicators (grip strength, one-repetition maximum squat [1RM], 20-meter multistage fitness test [20 m MFT] performance, and maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max]). Baseline characteristics were well balanced across groups (standardized mean differences < 0.50). After 16 weeks, both SSG and HIIT significantly reduced body weight, BMI, SBP, DBP, and RHR (p < 0.01), while significantly improving 1RM squat, 20 m MFT performance, and VO2max (p < 0.01). In contrast, the CG group showed significant decreases in SBP, left-hand grip strength, and 1RM squat (p < 0.05). Between-group analyses indicated that SSG and HIIT produced substantially greater improvements than the CG in cardiometabolic outcomes, for example, VO2max increased by approximately 7 mL·kg-1·min-1 in both training groups, whereas it showed little or no change in the CG. For body weight and BMI, only body weight differed significantly between the SSG and CG groups (p < 0.05). No significant between-group differences were observed in grip strength (p > 0.05), and no significant differences were found between the SSG and HIIT groups across any indicators (all p > 0.05). In conclusion, both SSG and HIIT effectively improved physical health and fitness in sedentary young adults. SSG may be more suitable for individuals seeking an enjoyable, game-based approach that supports upper limb strength development, while HIIT may be preferable for those aiming to enhance aerobic fitness efficiently. Because SSG offers an enjoyable, socially interactive, game-based format and HIIT provides a time-efficient, highly structured format, both modalities may promote sustained participation beyond initial adoption in previously inactive young adults.
This randomized controlled trial investigated the acute effects of floss band (FB) application at different pressures on multidimensional ankle stability in patients with chronic ankle instability (CAI). Forty-two male participants with CAI were randomly assigned to a medium-pressure (MP, 150 mmHg), high-pressure (HP, 200 mmHg), or control group (CG, non-compressive bandage). Outcomes included the Y-Balance Test (YBT), single-leg landing stability (assessed via surface electromyography), ankle proprioception, and static balance, measured at baseline (T0), 5 min (T1), 25 min (T2), and 45 min (T3) post-intervention. The results showed that both MP and HP groups exhibited significant improvements in YBT composite scores, lower limb muscle activation during landing, and joint position sense accuracy at T1 and T2 compared to T0 (all p < 0.05), with the MP group demonstrating longer-lasting benefits up to T3. The MP group also significantly outperformed the CG across multiple dynamic stability and neuromuscular metrics at early time points (p < 0.05). Improvements in static balance were limited and transient. These findings indicate that a single application of FB, particularly at 150 mmHg, can acutely enhance dynamic stability, neuromuscular control, and proprioception in CAI patients, with effects sustained for up to 45 minutes, supporting its use as an effective pre-activity or pre-rehabilitation intervention.
