Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most frequently occurring mycotoxins in wheat and poses significant concerns for food safety. In this study, a total of 540 wheat samples collected between 2014 and 2024 were analyzed to evaluate the occurrence and temporal variability of DON contamination. DON was detected in 139 samples (25.74
Inactivated microorganisms may reduce mycotoxins’ bioavailability, although in vivo evidence is limited especially in farm animals. This pilot study evaluated whether a fermented milk (FM) containing heat-inactivated biomasses of Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae at 1
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contamination of poultry feed impairs growth, immunity, and organ function, causing substantial economic losses. This study evaluated the protective efficacy of a multimodal, water-soluble antioxidant formulation (HI-RESIST®) against AFB1-induced toxicosis in broiler chickens. A total of 240 one-day-old Indian River broilers were randomized into six groups (n = 40): control, AFB1 (150 µg/kg feed), HI-RESIST® 1 (1 mL/L water), HI-RESIST® 2 (2 mL/L), AFB1 + HI-RESIST® 1, and AFB1 + HI-RESIST® 2. Treatments continued for 35 days. Outcome measures included body weight and feed intake, mortality, relative weights of thymus, bursa, liver, and kidney, innate (carbon-clearance assay) and cell-mediated (avian tuberculin) immune responses, humoral responses (SRBC, HI titers to Newcastle disease virus and H9 avian influenza), hematology (TEC, TLC, PCV, Hb), and serum biochemistry (ALT, AST, GGT, LDH, IL-33, BUN, creatinine, total protein, albumin, globulin), together with gross and histopathology of thymus, bursa, liver, and kidney. Dietary AFB1 produced the expected picture of aflatoxicosis: reduced feed intake and body weight gain, increased mortality, lymphoid organ involution, suppressed phagocytic and lymphoproliferative responses, lower antibody titers, anemia and elevated hepatic/renal biomarkers, and characteristic hepatic and renal histopathology (p < 0.05). HI-RESIST® supplementation ameliorated these effects in a dose-dependent manner; the 2 mL/L dose restored performance, immune parameters, hematobiochemical indices, and tissue morphology toward control values more effectively than 1 mL/L (statistically significant differences versus AFB1; p < 0.05). HI-RESIST® alone showed no adverse effects and, in some endpoints, enhanced immune and growth measures relative to control. In conclusion, HI-RESIST® administered in drinking water (particularly at 2 mL/L) substantially attenuated AFB1-induced immunotoxicity, hepatonephrotoxicity, and growth depression in broilers. These findings support the potential use of multimodal antioxidant supplementation as a practical strategy to mitigate aflatoxicosis in poultry; field validation and mechanistic studies are recommended.
This study presents a novel and comprehensive assessment of the presence of ergot alkaloids (EAs, ergocristine, ergocornine, α-ergocryptine, ergotaminine, and ergosine) and deoxynivalenol (DON), individually and in combination, in wheat and cattle feed in Brazil. A total of 92 wheat grain and 79 cattle feed samples from different feed and food Brazilian industries were analyzed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) between January 2023 and March 2025. Approximately 78
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi and pose a major threat to global food and feed safety. Although common mycotoxins, represented by aflatoxins (AFT), zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), and deoxynivalenol (DON), are subject to strict regulation, contamination with emerging mycotoxins, such as beauvericin (BEA), enniatins (ENNs), and moniliformin (MON), has been increasingly reported. These emerging mycotoxins often coexist with common mycotoxins in food and feed, resulting in complex mixed contamination. Such coexistence may give rise to complex combined toxic effects, including synergistic, additive, and antagonistic interactions, and the underlying mechanisms remain unclear, posing challenges to accurate risk assessment. This review summarizes the coexistence patterns, detection frequencies, and contamination levels of major emerging and common mycotoxins in various food and feed matrices across different geographical regions, while also considering modified/masked mycotoxins. It further examines the individual toxic effects and mechanisms of emerging mycotoxins, including ionophoric activity, apoptosis induction, and metabolic disturbance. In addition, this review focuses on the complex toxicological interactions arising from combined exposure to emerging and common mycotoxins and the molecular pathways involved. Overall, the available evidence indicates that emerging mycotoxins should be incorporated into mixture-oriented monitoring and cumulative risk assessment frameworks for food and feed safety.
This study assessed fungal contamination, multi-mycotoxin occurrence and associated health risks in maize consumed in Niger State, Nigeria. A total of 240 individual maize samples were collected across four microclimatic zones and pooled into 32 composite samples stratified by zone, source and maize type to obtain representative contamination profiles for screening-level assessment. Fungal isolation was performed using dilution plating, while mycotoxins were quantified by HPLC (aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA)) and ELISA (total fumonisins (FB1, FB2 and FB3), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEN)). Aspergillus species, particularly A. flavus and A. parasiticus, predominated, followed by Fusarium and Penicillium. Aflatoxins were detected in all composites (0.03–683 µg/kg). AFB₁ exceeded European Union (EU) limits in 75
Ochratoxin A(OTA) is one of the most common foodborne mycotoxins worldwide. Although the kidney is its primary target organ, OTA also causes significant hepatotoxicity in both animals and humans. This study investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying OTA-induced hepatotoxicity, focusing particularly on endoplasmic reticulum(ER) stress and inflammatory signaling pathways, and evaluated the hepatoprotective potential of epigallocatechin-3-gallate(EGCG), a natural polyphenol with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Thirty Albino Wistar rats were divided into five groups(n = 6 each): a vehicle control group, an OTA(0.5 mg/kg/day, 14 days), OTA(0.5 mg/kg/day) combined with EGCG(50 or 100 mg/kg/day) and 100 mg/kg as an EGCG control. All treatments were administered once daily by oral gavage for 14 days. Oxidative stress markers(glutathione [GSH] and malondialdehyde[MDA]) and glucose-regulated protein 78(GRP78),inositol-requiring enzyme 1α(IRE1α),nuclear factor kappa B(NF-κB), tumor necrosis factor-α(TNF-α), and interleukin-6(IL-6) mRNA expression were examined in liver tissue together with histopathological assessment of liver tissue. OTA induced hepatic fibrosis, inflammatory cell infiltration, congestion, and sinusoidal dilatation, all of which were markedly alleviated by EGCG treatment. OTA significantly reduced GSH levels while elevating MDA levels, reflecting oxidative stress and upregulated IRE1α,NF-κB, TNF-α, and IL-6 expression. EGCG co-administration produced a dose-dependent suppression in IRE1α, NF-κB, TNF-α,and IL-6 expression levels. Notably, GRP78 expression was further elevated with EGCG treatment. Histopathological findings supported the biochemical data, confirming that EGCG attenuated OTA-induced liver damage. This study demonstrated that OTA-induced hepatotoxicity may mediated, at least in part, through modulation of ER stress and NF-κB-driven inflammatory cascades, and that EGCG demonstrated dose-dependent protection by attenuating these responses.
Maize is susceptible to mycotoxin contamination throughout harvesting, storage, and processing, which poses potential risks to human health and livestock production. This review summarizes the occurrence, toxicological mechanisms, and contamination dynamics of major mycotoxins commonly detected in maize, including aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), zearalenone (ZEN), fumonisins (FBs), and deoxynivalenol (DON). We further examine their distribution and accumulation patterns across the maize production chain, from pre-harvest to processing. During the pre-harvest period, toxin accumulation is largely governed by climatic conditions and agricultural practices; during storage, toxin levels may escalate under conducive conditions, while processing is primarily associated with toxin redistribution and transformation. Based on these insights, we compare the applicability and limitations of physical, chemical, and biological detoxification strategies, with particular emphasis on biological approaches because of their high specificity and mild operating conditions, while recognizing challenges associated with scalability and practical application.
Visible mould is widely used as a practical sorting cue in maize, but it remains unclear whether the visible lesion marks the boundary of mycotoxin contamination within an intact cob. This study examined mycotoxin attenuation, spatial heterogeneity, and co-occurrence in visibly mouldy white maize cobs, using measured distances from the visible mould margin. Cobs with visible mould (n = 35) were sampled for the study. For each cob, the visible mould margin was coded as 0 mm, and adjacent sections were collected at the 50
Corn gluten feed (CGF) is a side-product from the manufacture of corn starch from maize grain by wet-milling. This process accumulates the mycotoxins in the CGF, moreover it gives an unique composition to CGF distinct from any other regular feed matrix for which mycotoxin analytical methods have been standardized. In this study, we report an optimised extraction medium for the determination of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and other mycotoxins in naturally contaminated CGF samples. Central composite experimental designs (CCDs) were utilised to find the appropriate extraction solution composition for the analysis of mycotoxins, which were quantified by liquid chromatography isotope dilution tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ID-MS/MS). The results highlighted that the acetonitrile percentage (AcN
Aflatoxins (AFs) are key contaminants in sesame seeds, threatening global food safety. Databases including Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched for records from January 1, 2005, to December 14, 2025. This study performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to determine aflatoxin prevalence and concentration in sesame seeds and assessed human health risk using the Margin of Exposure (MOE) approach. The pooled prevalence order was AFB1 (28.93
Nuts are widely consumed worldwide and valued for their high nutritional quality. Tree nuts are, however, prone to colonization by various fungal genera that can cause spoilage and lead to the formation of toxic secondary metabolites, among which mycotoxigenic Aspergillus (A.) species are of particular concern because they produce hepatotoxic aflatoxins (AFs). In this study, untreated, shelled walnuts, hazelnuts, cashews, pistachios, and peanuts were surface-sterilized, inoculated with different A. flavus strains and incubated under controlled conditions. The concentrations of AFs and sterigmatocystin (STC) in the edible kernels were quantified by an ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography method, coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS). In walnuts inoculated with five A. flavus strains, toxin production was highly strain dependent: four strains produced AFB1 in a wide range from 0.18 µg/kg to > 11,000 µg/kg, three strains formed AFB2 (3.58-1,411 µg/kg), and three strains synthesized STC (0.26–262 µg/kg), whereas one strain did not generate any AFs or STC, and none of the strains produced AFG1 or AFG2. In pistachios, inoculation with strains AF70 and CBS119.62 did not result in detectable AF formation, in contrast to hazelnuts, cashews, and peanuts, on which these strains yielded measurable toxin levels (AFB1: hazelnuts 0.11–3.56 µg/kg, cashews 0.15–0.16 µg/kg, peanuts 0.06–17.9 µg/kg; AFB2: hazelnuts 0.13–0.18 µg/kg, cashews < LOQ, peanuts 0.26–7.59 µg/kg; STC: hazelnuts 0.08 µg/kg, peanuts 5.28 µg/kg). Overall, markedly higher concentrations of A. flavus toxins were detected in walnuts than in the other nut types, identifying walnuts as a particularly susceptible matrix and indicating that AF and STC contamination of walnuts may pose an increasing food-safety challenge under future climate-change scenarios.
Aflatoxin (AF) contamination in tree nuts poses a serious threat to global food safety, public health, and international trade due to the potent carcinogenicity of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). Although traditional mitigation strategies exist, their industrial implementation is constrained by a strict “technological filter,” in which high detoxification efficacy must be carefully balanced against the preservation of the nutritional, structural, and sensory quality of the food matrix. This scoping review systematically mapped and critically synthesized recent scientific advances (2005–2025) in physical, chemical, and biological decontamination methods, evaluating their operational effectiveness, underlying mechanisms, and qualitative impacts on tree nuts. Guided by the question, “What physical, chemical, and biological methods are most effective for AF decontamination in tree nuts, and to what extent are they feasible regarding quality preservation and industrial applicability?”, the study strictly followed the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Manual for Evidence Synthesis and was reported according to PRISMA-ScR guidelines. A total of 41 eligible original studies were selected after comprehensive screening of the PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect databases. Physical approaches, particularly cold atmospheric plasma and UV-C radiation, achieved robust reduction rates ranging from 70
Patulin (PAT) is a mycotoxin that poses a significant health risk to both humans and animals. However, knowledge regarding its in vivo biotransformation and toxicological effects remains limited. In this study, zebrafish were exposed to a lethal dose of PAT for 24 h. Metabolite profiles in the intestine and liver were analyzed using UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS, and toxicological effects were evaluated via histopathological examination, oxidative stress assays, RT-qPCR of target genes, and 16 S rRNA sequencing of the gut microbiota. The key results are as follows: (1) In addition to forming PAT-GSH adducts in the liver, zebrafish can metabolize PAT into ascladiol and hydroascladiol in the intestine, with distinct tissue-specific distribution. The gut bacterium Lactobacillus may play a crucial role in this conversion process. (2) Quantitative analysis revealed that the levels of ascladiol and hydroascladiol peaked during the initial exposure stage and then declined sharply, followed by a rapid increase in PAT-GSH adduct accumulation. (3) PAT exposure also induced tissue inflammation, oxidative stress, upregulation of pro-inflammatory factors, and gut microbiota dysbiosis. Importantly, the severity of adverse effects in the intestine and liver was directly correlated with both the distribution of non-toxic metabolites (ascladiol and hydroascladiol) and the accumulation of PAT-GSH adducts. We hypothesize that the intestine acts as an initial defense barrier against PAT, but with prolonged exposure, disruption of the gut microbiota impairs this detoxification process. Consequently, excess unmetabolized PAT enters the liver via enterohepatic circulation, triggering hepatic inflammation and oxidative damage. These findings provide new insights into the in vivo modulation of PAT toxicity.
Mycotoxins, a harmful secondary metabolite released by filamentous fungi, are a major and frequent contaminant of agricultural products. They pose a major threat to food and feed security, public health, and global trade. Major mycotoxins of interest include aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes, fumonisins, zearalenone, patulin, deoxynivalenol, and citrinin, are associated with severe toxicological effects such as hepatocarcinogenicity, nephrotoxicity, immunosuppression, and endocrine disruption. A wide range of analytical methods has been developed for their detection, ranging from conventional chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques to biosensors Although conventional techniques offer high accuracy and sensitivity, their dependence on costly instrumentation, lengthy analysis procedures, and specialized laboratory infrastructure limits their suitability for routine or field-level monitoring. To address these challenges, recent research has increasingly focused on sensor-based technologies, electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, electronic-nose, and solid-state gas sensors, which offer rapid, portable, and cost-effective alternatives. This review not only synthesizes these advances but also introduces a distinctive emphasis on volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as emerging, non-invasive biomarkers for early fungal contamination detection, a perspective rarely highlighted in existing literature. Together, these developments offer promising pathways toward robust, real-time surveillance tools that strengthen food and feed safety. This review also discussed their applications, limitations, and future perspectives are also discussed.
Rice, a staple food for more than half of the global population, undergoes multiple processing stages-such as harvesting, dehulling, milling, and polishing-before it reaches consumers. However, these processes not only alter the physical and nutritional characteristics of rice but may also affect the distribution and concentration of contaminants, thereby posing potential safety and quality risks. In this study, a total of 231 unhusked rice samples were collected from three provinces(Jiangsu, Anhui, and Fujian)in China between 2016 and 2018, along with 11 white rice samples purchased from supermarkets in 2018, and analyzed for the presence of ustiloxin A and D. After dehulling, 31.6% and 5.6% of the brown rice samples were found to be contaminated with ustiloxin A and D, respectively, while neither toxin was detected in the 11 white rice samples obtained from the market. The occurrence of ustiloxin A and D was higher in middle-late rice ecotypes than in the early rice ecotype, with the highest frequency observed in japonica-type rice. Geographically, Jiangsu Province had the highest incidence of ustiloxin A, whereas Anhui Province showed the highest occurrence of ustiloxin D. Importantly, the concentrations of both ustiloxins were higher in unhusked rice than in brown rice and white rice, underscoring that processing can significantly reduce, though not completely eliminate, contamination risks. These findings highlight the importance of continuous monitoring and further investigation into the transfer dynamics of contaminants during rice processing to ensure the safety of the final product.
This study investigated the protective mechanisms of Chrysin (Ch) against aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)–induced hepato-renal toxicity in rats, focusing on oxidative stress, Sirtuin-1 (Sirt-1)/NF-κB signaling, apoptosis, and tissue remodeling pathways. Forty male Wistar albino rats were randomly allocated to Control, Ch, AFB1, and Ch+AFB1 groups. Chrysin (25 mg/kg BW /day) was administered orally for 11 days, while AFB1 (0.5 mg/kg BW /day) for 7 days. AFB1 exposure induced pronounced hepato-renal injury and histopathological alterations. At the molecular level, it caused excessive oxidative stress, evidenced by glutathione depletion and elevated malondialdehyde and 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine levels, indicating lipid peroxidation and oxidative DNA damage. This redox imbalance activated inflammatory signaling, reflected by increased NF-κB p65 and TNF-α, alongside dysregulated Sirt-1 expression, suggesting disruption of redox-sensitive transcriptional control. Persistent oxidative and inflammatory stress further promoted mitochondrial apoptosis, as indicated by upregulated Caspase-3 and Caspase-9, and triggered compensatory proliferation, demonstrated by elevated PCNA and Ki-67 levels. Co-administration of Chrysin mitigated these biochemical and molecular alterations by restoring antioxidant defenses, suppressing NF-κB–mediated inflammation via modulation of the Sirt-1/NF-κB axis, and attenuating apoptotic and proliferative signaling. These molecular improvements were accompanied by preservation of hepatic and renal histoarchitecture. Although the animals exhibited subclinical biochemical and histological stress, no overt clinical illness was observed during the study. In conclusion, AFB1-induced hepato-renal toxicity is driven by interconnected oxidative, inflammatory, and apoptotic mechanisms. Chrysin provides multi-level protection by modulating these pathways, highlighting its potential as a protective agent against mycotoxin-induced toxic injury.
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi that commonly contaminate animal feed, especially poultry feed, impacting poultry productivity and causing adverse effects on animal health. Ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, aflatoxins, zearalenone, and trichothecene are of particular concern due to their high toxicity, prevalence, and potential to accumulate as residues in animal-derived foods, such as offal, muscle tissues, and eggs. This study aims to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the occurrence, prevalence, and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in poultry feed and feed ingredients worldwide, as well as in poultry products between 2015 and 2025, while highlighting the various toxic effects of mycotoxin contaminants on poultry health and the factors that promote mycotoxin production throughout the poultry feed chain. The results of 53 relevant scientific articles were meta-analyzed. Fumonisin B1 and deoxynivalenol were present in high concentrations and frequently detected in feed and poultry products. At the same time, aflatoxin B2, G2, and G1 were present in low concentrations and rarely detected in feed and poultry products. The highest concentration of mycotoxins in poultry feed was associated with deoxynivalenol at 642.29 µg/kg, with a higher prevalence of 60.54
Aflatoxin is a major mycotoxin contaminant endemic in Kenya. It is especially common among smallholder farmers who depend on their produce and a limited range of staples. Extensive research has gone into the prevalence, mitigation and control measures of aflatoxin. However, the link between aflatoxin-related knowledge and dietary diversity remains understudied in Kenya. This cross-sectional study assessed knowledge of aflatoxin contamination, handling practices, and dietary diversity among 123 smallholder farmers’ households in Baringo County, Kenya. Dietary diversity was considered a potential indicator of food consumption patterns associated with aflatoxin exposure. Data was obtained through semi-structured questionnaires incorporating food frequency and 24-hour dietary recall sections. Dietary diversity was assessed using the FAO HDDS framework. Binary and multinomial logistic regression models were used to assess associations. While 71.5
This review aims to critically evaluate sustainable smart sensing technologies and AI-driven platforms for real-time mycotoxin detection, highlighting innovations, integration across the food supply chain, current limitations, and future directions for safer, data-driven food safety management. This systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines and covered studies published between 2015 and 2025. Literature searches were conducted in Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, IEEE Xplore, and Google Scholar, yielding a total sample of 620 identified records. Peer-reviewed articles on smart sensors, biosensors, and AI-driven mycotoxin monitoring were included. After title, abstract, and full-text screening based on predefined eligibility criteria, approximately 160 studies were retained and formed the final sample for qualitative synthesis across the food supply chain. Sustainable smart sensing and AI-driven platforms are transforming real-time mycotoxin detection across the food supply chain by enabling rapid, sensitive, and decentralized monitoring from farm to fork. Emerging biosensors, optical sensors, and IoT-enabled devices integrated with machine learning improve early warning, traceability, and decision-making. However, key gaps remain, including limited sensor robustness under variable field conditions, high costs of advanced materials, energy demands, and scarcity of large, standardized datasets for AI training. Interoperability between sensing platforms and regulatory frameworks is also underdeveloped. Sustainability challenges involve balancing analytical performance with low-energy operation, sensor recyclability, and accessibility for low-resource settings. Future directions should prioritize biodegradable and reusable sensor materials, edge-AI and low-power electronics, federated data-sharing models, and climate-resilient deployment strategies. Integrating predictive analytics with risk assessment and policy alignment will be essential for scalable, sustainable mycotoxin management systems.
