The persistence of veterinary antibiotics in soils, particularly in alpine regions, poses environmental risks. A critical knowledge gap exists regarding the degradation mechanisms under freeze-thaw cycles (FTCs), specifically the interplay...
Long-range environmental transport potential (LRETP) is a key scientific factor underlying recent discussions about whether certain organic chemicals may warrant consideration as persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Here, we review the evidence base for the LRETP of cyclic volatile methyl siloxanes (cVMSs). The majority of cVMSs are released into the air, with smaller fractions entering surface water (via wastewater) and soil (via sewage sludge). Transport distances of cVMSs in water are likely to be low due to high combined loss rates for volatilisation, hydrolysis and net deposition of sediment-associated material. In contrast, the long-range atmospheric transport potential (LRATP) of cVMSs is likely to be high due to very high volatility and moderate reaction rates, compared with advection. However, the potential for deposition from air to surface media (e.g. in remote regions) is much less certain. Multimedia models suggest that cVMSs are likely to have long characteristic travel distances (CTDs) in air (2500-7800 km), although empirical travel distances (ETDs) are shorter (1000-2500 km) and potential for deposition is low. Field evidence for atmospheric deposition is often confounded by local contamination, analytical artefacts and (in the case of biota) uncertainties in diet, exposure locations and migration paths. The overall weight-of-evidence suggests that deposition from air to surface media in remote regions is very low for cVMSs.
Legacy phosphorus (P) accumulated in agricultural soils can be remobilized under changing environmental conditions, increasing the risk of diffuse nutrient losses and eutrophication. However, how multiple environmental disturbances jointly regulate P mobilization across contrasting mineralogical soil systems remains insufficiently understood. Here, four representative soils from the Xiangxi River watershed (Three Gorges Reservoir region, China) were subjected to controlled flooding, simulated acidification, and organic ligand treatments. Mineralogical characterization was integrated with dissolved reactive P release, operational P fractionation, adsorption-desorption experiments, and apparent thermodynamic analyses to identify the mineralogical controls on phosphorus mobilization. Phosphorus mobilization differed consistently among soils with contrasting mineralogical characteristics. Flooding, decreasing pH, and organic ligand inputs all enhanced dissolved reactive P release, although the magnitude and dominant pathways varied with soil mineral composition. Fe/Al-rich soils exhibited greater susceptibility to flooding- and ligand-induced desorption, whereas Ca-rich calcareous soils responded more strongly to acidification through redistribution of Ca-associated phosphorus pools. Low-molecular-weight organic acids promoted substantially greater phosphorus mobilization than humic substances, highlighting the importance of ligand chemistry in regulating phosphorus availability. Apparent thermodynamic analyses further indicated that phosphorus sorption in these heterogeneous soils behaved as an overall endothermic process and that the derived thermodynamic parameters are most appropriately interpreted as comparative descriptors of adsorption affinity. Overall, the results demonstrate that soil mineralogy governs phosphorus mobilization by mediating the response of mineral-phosphate interactions to coupled environmental disturbances. Overall, the findings provide an evidence-based framework for understanding mineralogy-dependent phosphorus mobilization under multiple environmental disturbances and support mineralogy-informed assessment and management of phosphorus loss risk in reservoir-influenced agroecosystems.
Correction for 'Artificial turf fields act as recurring point sources of metals and emerging tire-derived contaminants in stormwater' by Kate J. Moloney et al., Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts, 2026, 28, 935-948, https://doi.org/10.1039/D5EM01016K.
Calcium (Ca) isotopes are increasingly recognized as sensitive tracers of chemical weathering and carbonate formation, yet the controls on riverine δ44/40Ca remain poorly constrained in large mountainous catchments. Here, we investigated dissolved Ca sources and isotopic behavior in the upper Yangtze River by comparing high-altitude and low-altitude sub-basins during the low-flow season. The δ44/40Ca values ranged from 0.74‰ to 0.98‰ in high-altitude regions (mean = 0.86‰) and from 0.77‰ to 0.87‰ in low-altitude regions (mean = 0.83‰), both within the global riverine range and showing only a small, statistically insignificant difference between altitude groups. Inversion modeling showed that carbonate weathering dominated dissolved Ca in low-altitude regions (20-89%, mean 60%), whereas high-altitude waters displayed more variable source contributions, with carbonate weathering contributing 15-80%, evaporite dissolution 6-53%, and silicate weathering 7-47%. Although source proportions were correlated with δ44/40Ca, conservative mixing remains an important control and cannot be fully excluded for all samples; secondary carbonate formation is therefore interpreted as a possible additional influence superimposed on source mixing. In high-altitude regions, δ44/40Ca was positively correlated with both Sr/Ca and Mg/Ca, consistent with possible preferential removal of light Ca isotopes during carbonate precipitation. In low-altitude regions, δ44/40Ca remained positively correlated with Sr/Ca, whereas the relationship with Mg/Ca was weak, suggesting stronger fractionation under longer water-rock interaction and slower flow conditions. Monte Carlo uncertainty propagation shows that the apparent α values for the high- and low-altitude groups are not statistically distinguishable within uncertainty. These results suggest that altitude-related hydrogeochemical settings modulate riverine Ca isotope behavior through combined effects of source mixing and possible secondary carbonate formation. This study demonstrates that altitude-driven hydrogeochemical variations govern riverine Ca isotope dynamics in the upper Yangtze, offering a robust tool for tracing secondary carbonate precipitation and quantifying carbonate weathering-related carbon fluxes in large river basins.
Correction for 'Hydrophobic model systems for oil film photooxidation: part II: direct and indirect pathways controlled by oxygen and molecular structure' by Bin Wu et al., Environ. Sci.: Processes Impacts, 2026, https://doi.org/10.1039/d6em00173d.
Atmospheric deposition samples were collected across four sites of the Newfoundland and Labrador Boreal Ecosystem Latitudinal Transect (NL-BELT) to better understand the sources and fate of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Both total and wet deposition samples were collected between October 2013 and August 2016. Perfluoroalkylcarboxylic acids (PFCAs) and perfluoroalkylsulfonic acids (PFSAs) were detected consistently in deposition samples. The median PFCA homologue concentration across the sampling sites was 300 pg L-1, with concentration values ranging from <LOD to 10 000 pg L-1. The PFSAs were two orders of magnitude lower than PFCAs, with a median concentration of 3 pg L-1. Concentrations (pg L-1) were converted to annual flux using volume, sampler area, and duration (ng m-2 a-1). The median PFCA flux was 170 ng m-2 a-1, while the PFSA flux across the sampling sites was 33 ng m-2 a-1. Our measurements are among the first to separate the roles of wet and dry deposition, which could be quantified for perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA). We found that dry deposition was variable and could be an important contributor to the total deposition flux for the three PFCAs assessed. Our analysis of homologue correlations, molar concentration ratios, and model comparisons suggests that most PFCAs are formed indirectly through the oxidation of precursor compounds. Air mass back trajectory and major ion analysis, conversely, indicate that direct transport and/or marine aerosol are minor contributors in this region. These observations highlight the complex mechanisms responsible for the transport and deposition of PFAAs along the remote NL-BELT.
The aging of pollutants determines their bioavailability and the corresponding toxicity thresholds in soil environments. However, existing ecotoxicological assessments of heavy metals, antibiotics, and pesticides in facility agricultural soils rarely incorporate the confounding influences of contaminant aging and soil physicochemical properties. This study selected six facility agricultural soils with differing properties and assessed their toxic effects on Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis) biomass following exogenous addition of cadmium (Cd), tetracycline (TC), and imidacloprid (IM), administered both individually and in combination. Under single Cd contamination, the EC50 for biomass inhibition increased from the 14-day value to 30.0 mg kg-1 after 360 days of aging. For combined contamination, the EC50 reached 18.3 mg kg-1 for Cd-TC and 24.5 mg kg-1 for Cd-IM over the same aging period. In the acidic soils, a low-dose tetracycline inducing hormetic response was observed, with biomass stimulation exceeding 110% of the control. As aging progressed from 14 to 360 days, pollutant toxicity declined. During early aging, no significant difference in aging factors was observed between composite and single pollutants. However, in the later stages, the aging factors for composite pollutants were significantly higher than those of single pollutants. Among these, the Cd-TC aging factor was lowest in Guangxi red soil (AF360d = 3.21), and highest in Henan alluvial soil (AF360d = 3.82). Furthermore, the aging factor increment was more pronounced for Cd-TC mixtures than for Cd-IM. In different types of facility agricultural soils, soil organic matter and clay content can effectively predict the soil aging process as the aging period increases. All predictive models for aging factors were derived, for single Cd contamination as: (AF180d) = -0.256 + 0.455 lg pH + 0.511 lg CEC + 0.593 lg OM (R2 = 0.884, p < 0.01). These findings provide data and theoretical support for the development of aging factor prediction models and the establishment of environmental quality standards for combined contamination involving heavy metals and emerging pollutants in facility agricultural soils.
The Yangtze River ranks second globally in salt flux and plays a pivotal role in material transport to the oceans. As a key constituent of salt flux, sulfate (SO42-) requires clear source apportionment and process characterization. This study integrates hydrochemistry, stable isotopes, and a Bayesian isotope mixing model (MixSIAR) to resolve the spatial distribution, sources, transformation pathways, and drivers of SO42- across the basin. Observed SO42- concentrations range from 8.44 to 277.59 mg L-1, with region-averaged means of upstream (80.83 mg L-1) > downstream (41.00 mg L-1) > midstream (30.59 mg L-1). Basin hydrochemistry reflects the combined control of rock weathering and anthropogenic activities. Isotopic signatures identify five potential SO42- sources: atmospheric deposition, evaporite dissolution, sulfide oxidation, fertilizers, and sewage. MixSIAR estimates indicate that sulfide oxidation was the dominant SO42- source in the dry-season samples, with the highest contribution in the upstream region (90.1 ± 4.9%). Toward the midstream and downstream, the relative contribution of sewage increased, indicating a dry-season longitudinal shift from predominantly natural processes toward stronger anthropogenic inputs. These results provide dry-season constraints on SO42- sources and transformation processes in the Yangtze River and improve understanding of sulfur migration in large river systems.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are important precursors to secondary organic aerosol (SOA) and ozone. Fragranced personal care products (PCPs) have been identified as important contributors to VOC emissions in urban and indoor environments, particularly as a source of limonene, which has high SOA mass yields. However, the factors controlling fragranced PCP emission dynamics from different surface types remain unclear. This research quantified the emission dynamics of limonene evaporation from different fragranced PCP types spread across different surface materials. To conduct the study, an equal mass of body wash, lotion, shampoo, and shower scrub was evenly spread across a standardized surface area of glass, silicone, or fabric. The PCP-covered surfaces were placed in a mason jar that was flushed with clean air, and headspace samples were collected every 5-15 minutes on multi-bed adsorbent cartridges. The samples were analyzed via offline thermal desorption gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (TD-GC-MS). Eight different monoterpenoids were identified across all PCP types, with limonene accounting for over 80% of the measured emissions in most products. Limonene also dominated the atmospheric oxidant reactivity of the emissions for all products except body wash, which had a significant oxidant reactivity contribution from linalool. The results illustrate that limonene emission dynamics from PCPs were more dependent on the surface material rather than the type of PCP, where silicone (e.g., permeable material) had the slowest emission rate and served as a limonene reservoir. These results will help improve models of indoor air quality by providing information on VOC emission dynamics from different types of indoor surfaces.
This study evaluates sediments from the mangrove estuary to examine the premise that geogenic and fluvial dynamics act as the dominant controls on elemental (primordial radionuclides and REEs) partitioning, with secondary regulation by the trivial influence of anthropogenic activities. A total of 31 benthic sediments were collected across the upstream to downstream transect and analysed using ICP-MS. Activity concentrations (Bq kg-1) of 40K, 226Ra, and 232Th were calculated based on elemental abundance of Th, U, and K, respectively, and multivariate statistical approaches were applied to identify elemental sources with a quantitative approach. The average activities (in Bq kg-1) of 40K (819 ± 86), 226Ra (46.6 ± 7.6), and 232Th (78.7 ± 12.4) exceeded global baselines, while total REEs ranged from 188 to 390 µg g-1, strongly enriched in light-REEs (∑LREE/∑HREE = 8.4 ± 0.2) with a notable europium anomaly (Eu/Eu* = 0.56 ± 0.03). High field strength elements (Hf: 5.5 ± 1.9; Zr: 224 ± 80; Ta: 1.3 ± 0.2 µg g-1) and actinides (Th: 19.4 ± 3.1; U: 3.8 ± 0.6 µg g-1) exhibited localized enrichment in mid-estuarine zones, reflecting hydrodynamic sorting of heavy minerals. Geo-environmental indices revealed "unpolluted to moderately polluted" conditions, consistent with a primarily geogenic signal. The mean absorbed dose rate was 103 ± 8.6 nGy h-1, which was slightly higher than the global average value but at or below internationally accepted safe limits for all other radiological hazard indices. The potential ecological risks were generally mild to moderate (PERI:100-212), with one site exhibiting the highest localized risk (RI = 212) due to elevated REEs (Lu, Tm, and Tb), indicating potential ecological toxicity. Thus, the findings suggest a felsic provenance with minimal anthropogenic influence primarily shapes the geochemistry of the mangrove sediments. While current risks are within acceptable limits, localized anomalies suggest potential ecological vulnerability and magnify the importance of mangrove estuaries as dynamic reservoirs of primordial radionuclides and REEs in the context of global warming-driven sediment redistribution and sea-level variations.
Aerosol constituents transform as they travel through the air handling unit (AHU) due to the air being filtered, heated, and cooled. Though the strength of these processes has direct indoor air quality implications, comprehensive model descriptions of how commercial heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems affect indoor aerosol composition are lacking. Herein, an AHU module was designed to augment the Indoor Model of Aerosols, Gases, Emissions, and Surfaces (IMAGES) framework, which is a modeling platform that simulates indoor aerosols by incorporating the two-dimensional volatility basis set (2D-VBS) for organic aerosol and ISORROPIA for inorganic aerosol. This AHU module simulates the organic and inorganic concentrations as air travels from the mixing box, through the filter, through the heating and cooling coils, and into the supply duct. It accounts for essential processes inside the AHU, such as particle deposition to the filter and heat exchangers, gas loss to the water condensed on the cooling coil during operation, and temperature-driven repartitioning of organic and inorganic species by using thermodynamic frameworks in the 2D-VBS and ISORROPIA. The module's performance was assessed with measurements taken at various stages of an HVAC system at Johns Hopkins University when periodic cooling occurred. Modeled concentrations post filter and heating coil were slightly over-predicted, which caused over-predictions in the supply duct. However, the module performed well when the processes of aerosols flowing over the cooling coil were isolated. Still, consistent with our previous work that applied ISORROPIA to an indoor setting, a missing condensation sink within ISORROPIA must be accounted for to obtain more accurate inorganic partitioning. Thus, HVAC system impacts on aerosol composition may now be better considered in detailed indoor aerosol models, such as IMAGES.
Biomass-burning aerosol (BBA) is emitted by combustion through wildfires and prescribed burns. As BBA contains chromophoric brown carbon, this aerosol increases radiative forcing and drives particle-phase photochemistry such as generation of singlet oxygen (1O2) via photosensitization. By generating 1O2, BBA could contribute to oxidation of atmospheric aerosol constituents and facilitate photobleaching of its brown carbon. Little is known regarding the quantum yield for 1O2 production in the aqueous dissolved fraction of BBA, or the variability of 1O2 production between biomass fuel types and other factors. In this study, the quantum yield of 1O2 photosensitization in aqueous BBA extracts during UVA light exposure was determined using the molecular probe furfuryl alcohol. Quantum yields of 1O2 formation ranged from 1.2-3.4%, and BBA generated by wax myrtle was found to have a significantly higher quantum yield than five other biomass fuels, indicating a possible significant dependence on fuel type in some cases. These values lie in a similar range observed for aquatic dissolved organic matter (DOM), where 1O2 production plays an important role in the fate of aquatic contaminants. No dependence on fuel type was observed in measured BBA steady-state 1O2 concentrations or rates of light absorption. The quantum yield of 1O2 was negatively correlated with absorption at 254 and 300 nm, but no other optical index was found to correlate with 1O2 production. Additionally, dynamic changes to the UV-vis absorption spectrum indicated that optical indices used to predict size and aromaticity of aqueous DOM do not apply to BBA extracts. These results emphasize the importance of BBA photosensitization as an aerosol-phase source of 1O2 decoupled from gas-phase atmospheric oxidants. BBA thus plays a role similar to DOM photosensitization in the aqueous environment, despite differences in their formation, chemical composition, and photochemical properties.
Palsas and lithalsas are permafrost landforms that are ubiquitous parts of the subarctic landscape, commonly found in areas of discontinuous permafrost. Their degradation can lead to the formation of thermokarst lakes, releasing contaminants previously stored in permafrost, such as mercury (Hg). In this study, two thermokarst lakes (KANG1 and KANG2) were sampled in the winter and summer of 2023 in the Canadian subarctic (Kangiqsualujjuaq, Nunavik). The thermokarst lakes differ in origin, with KANG1 formed through lithalsa degradation and KANG2 through palsa degradation. Water column analyses included total Hg (THg) and monomethylmercury (MMHg). Bottom lake sediments were also analyzed, and incubation assays conducted to evaluate methylation and demethylation potential, as well as the contributions of key microbial methylators. Winter conditions appeared to favor Hg methylation and accumulation in the water column. In KANG1, the fraction of Hg that is present in the form of MMHg (%MMHg) ranged from 56.8 ± 2.9% to 100% (measured as 102.7 ± 1.8%) in winter, with lower summer values averaged 19.8 ± 1.0%, suggesting potential transport to adjacent freshwater systems during spring thaw. Sediment THg concentrations were similar across seasons, but the %MMHg and methylation rates were higher in winter exhibiting the same pattern observed in the water column. Conversely, KANG2 exhibited higher THg, %MMHg and methylation rates, reaching 0.42 ± 0.02 day-1 during summer. Incubation results highlighted the important role of sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and methanogens in MMHg production in these systems and revealed distinct seasonal patterns in methylation and demethylation rates that may be linked to shifts in microbial guilds responsible for these processes.
Widespread use of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) by the building industry places it among the major consumers of these chemicals. At the same time, ambiguous labelling and a lack of PFAS measurements in building materials hampers the possibility for consumers to select products which are PFAS-free. To address this, 35 representative sealers from the United States (US) market purchased in 2021 were analyzed using a fluorine mass balance approach, combining total and extractable organic fluorine (TF and EOF, respectively) measurements with targeted PFAS analysis of 19 polar compounds. TF analysis showed that 81% of the sealers contained fluorinated compounds at concentrations ranging from <LOD up to 27 150 µg F g-1. A comparison to EOF revealed that the fluorine in most products was extractable and organic (EOF range <LOD up to 24 073 µg F g-1), and most likely PFAS. Nevertheless, targeted PFAS analysis could only account for up to 31% of EOF, pointing to the presence of polymeric PFAS and potentially other low molecular PFAS. Among the detected PFAS, polyfluoroalkyl phosphate esters (PAPs) were the dominant sub-class. Six products appeared to not contain intentionally added PFAS, with organosilicone chemistry identified as the main functional component. Notably, organosilicone-based compounds are also under regulatory scrutiny, and differing views on their risks highlight the broader challenge of identifying truly safer alternatives.
In response to the growing microplastic crisis, several countries have restricted the use of glitter in various products; however, it remains widely used and commercially available. While existing research has predominantly addressed the physical impacts of glitter particles, this study investigates the release of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) from their coloured and reflective layers. We characterized both natural and plastic glitters available on the market, evaluating their structure, coloration, PTEs content, and the leaching behaviour of these elements into various model solutions. The results showed that coloured and reflective glitter layers contained elevated concentrations of Al (up to 10 404 mg kg-1), Cu (up to 2210 mg kg-1), Cr (up to 780 mg kg-1), and Ni (up to 10.6 mg kg-1), whereas natural glitter was rich in Al (51 883 mg kg-1) and Pb (3.22 mg kg-1). The highest metal mobilisation was observed under acidic and hydrophobic conditions, exceeding 90% for Cr, Cu and Ni. Although glitter represents a relatively small fraction of plastic waste, its small particle size, irregular shape, multilayered structure, and ability to release metals indicate that it may contribute to contamination and environmental risk in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The results also showed that natural alternatives cannot automatically be considered environmentally safe substitutes for plastic glitter.
Groundwater quality in cultural landscapes is increasingly compromised by anthropogenic organic substances, yet the long-term dynamics and persistence of both current-use and legacy compounds remain insufficiently understood. Here, we present a 6 year, high-resolution mining of an untargeted metabolomics LC-MS dataset from the Hainich Critical Zone Exploratory (central Germany), enabling detection and temporal tracking of environmental chemicals in a groundwater system within fractured sedimentary bedrock. We identify five key compounds-the insect repellent N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET), the coniferous resin acid 7-oxodehydroabietic acid (7-ODAA), the legacy herbicide simazine, the triazine transformation product hydroxypropazine, and triphenyl phosphate (TPP), a flame retardant and lubricant-across perched (7 m) and phreatic (∼90 m) groundwater zones. DEET and 7-ODAA exhibited seasonal concentration patterns consistent with usage-related release, while simazine, hydroxypropazine, and TPP occurred episodically, with notable re-emergence during extreme events, such as the 2018 drought and a 5 year groundwater highstand. Our findings highlight that both recent and legacy organic contaminants undergo dynamic mobilisation processes, influenced by recharge patterns and climate extremes. These results underscore the importance of sustained, high-frequency monitoring to capture episodic events and trace compound-specific responses across the hydrogeological system. By identifying persistent and transient compounds as potential flow tracers, this study advances understanding of organic matter transport in the Critical Zone and offers insights into groundwater protection strategies under changing environmental conditions.
The widespread use of pesticides in crop protection leads to their release into soil, where their occurrence is shaped by multiple factors, including land use, management practices, and pedoclimatic conditions. However, their long-term behavior and effects on beneficial soil organisms remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the drivers of pesticide residue occurrence in agricultural soils, their persistence beyond the period in which ≥90% of the applied substance is expected to dissipate from the soil according to regulatory data (DT90), and potential ecotoxicological effects on soil invertebrates. We analyzed 146 substances (127 active ingredients and 19 transformation products) in topsoil from 126 Swiss sites across different land uses (arable and vegetable fields, orchards, and vineyards) using a sensitive analytical method. In addition to pesticide application intensity, pedoclimatic factors - particularly soil organic carbon and 30-year mean precipitation - emerged as key drivers of residue occurrence. Observed field persistence exceeded regulatory maximum field half-lives in about 60% of cases, especially for residues remaining in soil well beyond the DT90 period. While most pesticide concentrations declined to below 10% of the applied amount after this period, several remained above this threshold for extended periods and at concentrations potentially relevant for ecotoxicological effects on soil invertebrates. Among these, difenoconazole, epoxiconazole, and chlorpyrifos contributed most strongly to the potential ecotoxicological impact across land uses, with overall concerns higher in Switzerland than in the European LUCAS soil monitoring survey. Our findings indicate that regulatory prospective persistence estimates frequently fail to capture field longevity and associated potential ecotoxicological effects of multiple pesticides.
Metal adsorption in porous environments occurs under flowing conditions, where transport, diffusion, and reaction act on comparable timescales and thermodynamic equilibrium is rarely achieved. To address this non-equilibrium regime at the pore scale, we use a microfluidic-polarographic approach that provides controlled access to short residence times under laminar flow. This study investigates Pb(II) adsorption onto carboxylated polystyrene latex nanoparticles (PSL-COOH) under dynamic flow conditions. Batch experiments show a biphasic behaviour, with rapid electrostatic adsorption followed by slower site-specific binding. Under laminar flow conditions, Pb(II) adsorption reaches ∼97-98% over a wide range of flow rates, corresponding to residence times between 0.9 and 35 s. Reactive transport modelling shows that, although outer-sphere adsorption is intrinsically fast, Pb(II) adsorption within the microfluidic channel remains diffusion-limited under laminar co-flow. Accounting for downstream droplet formation demonstrates that efficient mixing provides a short additional interaction time sufficient to complete Pb(II) adsorption and explain the nearly flow-independent adsorption observed experimentally. These results show that microfluidic-polarographic systems enable controlled investigation of short residence-time adsorption regimes and provide a framework to characterise adsorption under transport-limited, non-equilibrium flow conditions relevant to porous environmental systems.
