A New Look at the Representations for Mathematical Concepts: Expanding on Lesh’s Model of Representations of Mathematical Concepts Elizabeth Lee Johnson, Ph.D., Elementary Program Coordinator, University of South Carolina Beaufort ABSTRACT This article investigates the potential of utilizing technology to apply Lesh’s representations for teaching mathematical concepts. Lesh’s model includes written symbols, verbal symbols, real life situations, pictorial representations, and concrete representations. The author suggests that, with the wealth of technological applications, teachers have an opportunity to expand that model to include “moving pictures” using technology, thus linking concrete representations to their still-picture counterparts.
To investigate food insecurity in community college students, our research team developed a mixed methods study. For the first phase, we interviewed 16 Maryland community college administrators to determine which community colleges had food banks or food pantries. The second phase involved gathering in depth information from 6 community college leaders who have food pantries on their campuses, about food insecurity and student success. Phase 3 consisted of surveying 200+ community college students in Fall 2017, using a survey that measured food insecurity and student success, defined as what students must do to successfully complete their college program. For this project, student success includes two elements that can lead to completion - concentration levels and energy levels, and one traditional metric of success, grade point average (GPA). Our research validates earlier studies and highlights the particular problem areas for women students in community colleges. We found that they are more likely to be food insecure than men attending community colleges. In addition, the most food insecure students in our research were single parents and minority women. Moreover, using a Pell Grant to pay for school was a predictor of food insecurity for women in general. Finally, women over 20 were almost three times more likely to be food insecure than younger women.
[T]hat of is in its infancy, is evident from philosophers scrupling to give knowledge most useful to man that distinction. (1) In this talk, I discuss Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of Rights of Woman: With Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects and A Vindication of Rights of Men as books of philosophy about rational materialism. Based on an analysis of Lockean thought, as applied to possibility of women's development of reason, Wollstonecraft suggests a new way to develop thought via materialism. She suggests that mind is formed by experience and education, for women as well as for men. Drawing on a body of texts by Edmund Burke and James Fordyce that suggested that women were more feeling than men, at expense of their rationality, and responding to these texts, Wollstonecraft suggested women were rational, given education. She argued for necessity of an expansion in rights of education for women. Following an increase in reading, women as well as men would have rational consciousness. Further, she thought, an expanded consciousness for women would mean greater earning power and expanded political participation and representation. At this early, indeed, inceptive point in feminist history, Wollstonecraft perceived that nation-building was, as Iacovetta describes, a process that created both citizens (or potential citizens) and noncitizens denied rights. (2) Wollstonecraft sought to address how women might perform nation building based on connection between household and state. In A Vindication of Rights of Woman, Wollstonecraft suggests that field of political philosophy was in a formative stage in which material formation of minds of women should be no longer neglected. In an era that saw philosophers scrupling with a moral hesitation about the knowledge most useful to and, implicitly, knowledge most useful to women, she sought to promote viability of women as thinking people, based on ideas from material body and mind that she gathered from her medical experience and reading in natural sciences. In discourse of rights of 1790s, discussions of knowledge were at centre of debates about humanity. Wollstonecraft joined arguments about expanding rights, as in writings of Joseph Johnson publishing circle, with a unique, feminist perspective. Her writing pondered climate as it related to her situation, a literate woman with substantial experience in delivery health care (it was before time when women might be licensed to practice medicine). She wondered whether, in present climate, knowledge for women should be further considered. In her writings, she suggests that universal rights, should be those including rights for women. The moment was crucial, when definition of knowledge was at important stage of gaining determinate distinction of the of politics, a field which she thought might accept expanded ideas of educable female rationality. (3) This was first step in ensuring that women would be considered fully as persons before law, in terms of gaining right and access to own property, to gain employment to attend university and hold a profession, and to vote. Defining herself as one of scrupling philosophers working on question of that 'most useful' knowledge to man, and to woman, Wollstonecraft suggested a new way to develop political thought. She points out present indeterminacy of science of politics to suggest necessity of a wider participation of intellectuals, including women, in politics. Wollstonecraft's idea of intellectual sphere suggested a space more supportive of women's minds. Wollstonecraft's philosophy suggested political opinions, including opinions of women, to be informed by education and reading literature. (4) With a science of politics would involve experimental philosophical rationalism without traditional sentiment, including traditional sentimentalization of women and their minds. …
Introduction The Hierarchy of Needs was developed by Abraham Maslow as a theory of human motivation (Saeednia and Md Nor 2010, 94). Since our current study has found that many students believe that religion and spirituality are central to their lives, including their education, it is important to understand how fulfillment of needs, as informed by Maslow, may fit into this process. While religious groups and organizations are often placed in social need category, it is possible to have interaction transcend to other areas of need and fulfillment (Gobin, Teeroovengadum, Becceea, and Teeroovengadum 2012). The following study quantitatively and qualitatively examined relationship between components of a Spiritual Needs/Motivation/Volition Framework developed by lead author and shares students' perspectives regarding their sense of spiritual fulfillment and how their spirituality intersected with their academic success. Practical implications for educators will be presented to allow them to capitalize upon these student perceptions in ways that will help them connect with their students on a deeper, spiritual level and motivate them academically. Review of Literature Theoretical Framework The proposed Spiritual Needs/Motivation/Volition Framework, as well as operational definitions that will be offered for spirituality and religion, are informed by Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow 1968) and his writings regarding religion and self-efficacy (Maslow 1964). The fulfillment of social need includes the need to feel loved by others and be accepted (Gobin, et al. 2012, 205). Because Maslow's view is holistic, it can be assumed that every element and aspect of human life works together to satisfy needs, helping people move from one level to next in hierarchy. Therefore, religion and spirituality are interwoven throughout various needs, not just that of social need. As students work their way up pyramid, toward self-actualization, they must have their need for religious and spiritual community and practice satisfied at their individual level of need (Kroth 2007). Since everyone, according to Maslow, is working towards self-actualization, something must motivate students to move from one need to next. Educators and administration should strive to understand importance that religion and spirituality play in motivating students, as these elements could very well be driving force behind fulfillment of individual needs. When social needs are not met, and this is where religion and spirituality fit most comfortably, it can be devastating to students (Sherwin and Stevenson 2010). A way that educators can assist in this fulfillment is to be empathetic to needs of students, understanding that every student will have varying needs and will progress at different rates (Sherwin and Stevenson 2010). Therefore, it is necessary to respect and provide space and time for students to practice their religious beliefs (Sherwin and Stevenson 2010). Students must feel safe, secure, and comfortable in order to be successful, thus a nurturing environment is necessary and important for self-actualization to be achieved (O'Connor 2008, 16). While public school practitioners have gradually moved from a concept of true holistic education that sought to educate students' minds, bodies, and spirits toward a reticence to even mention spirituality (Sink, Cleveland, and Stern 2007), educators should be aware that students are spiritual beings and retain their religious freedom even on public school campuses. Therefore, students should not be judged based upon their religious or spiritual preferences or practices. Educators can be pivotal in process of nurturing spiritual development, as they are ones that set tone for classroom and ensure that an efficient and effective learning environment is provided. …
This paper is the sharing of a record, the personal history of an educator pursuing an interest in knowledge of the brain. Over the years, this fascination sparked the idea to create a course for teachers based on brain science, with a twist. Certain course assignments would require teachers to interpret knowledge of the brain in the context of their individual classes. In 2006, I completed a dissertation entitled “The Impact of a Brain Research Course on Knowledge of the Brain and Teacher Efficacy.” Over the past ten years, I have continued to teach brain science research to master’s level teachers. In this article, I share my observations and insights into the teaching of brain anatomy and function to teachers. The article focuses on the growing attraction of brain science research to educators. In it, I seek to illustrate how learning about the brain has created a positive force in the teaching lives of enrolled students, the learning of their students, the accommodations of curricular requirements, and the culture of the schools in which they operate. I conclude with observations regarding the utility, viability, and desirability of a course in brain research within other teacher preparation programs.
Introduction From Lynn White's identification of a linkage between the Judeo-Christian tradition and domination over nature (1) to more specific critiques of evangelicalism's 1) anthropology as anthropocentric, 2) ethics as exploitative, 3) cosmology as escapist and 4) eschatology as ecologically apathetic, (2) the Christian tradition has been consistently critiqued for being anti-environmental. To the degree these charges validly describe the evangelical tradition, then it would seem, says J.A. Simmons, that 'evangelical environmentalism' is an idea is akin to a white supremacist group hosting a luncheon to promote racial (3) Although Christian activism on energy policy can be traced back to the early 70s when the National Council of Churches prepared a report on the use of plutonium as a commercial fuel (4) and the National Association of Evangelicals released a short Resolution on Environment and Ecology, (5) evangelical attention to environmental issues from leaders, congregations, and institutions is a more recent phenomenon. (6) For the most part, evangelicals have been popularly portrayed as taking conservative positions on social issues such as abortion and gay marriage. (7) Danielsen identifies two issue attention cycles for environmental concern in evangelical culture in recent years: the first is from 1988 to 1995 and the second is from 2004 to 2010. (8) Several key organizational developments occurred during this time period. In 1992, the Theological Commission of the World Evangelical Fellowship met for the Au Sable Forum on Evangelical Christianity and the Environment and the Evangelical Environmental Network (EEN) was established. (9) The National Religious Partnership for the Environment was formed the following year. By 2002, the Director of the Evangelical Environmental Network was driving a Toyota Prius across the American South in a grassroots activism What Would Jesus Drive Campaign. (10) Within two more years, the Evangelical Environmental Network garnered support from some of the highest levels of evangelical leadership; they co-sponsored a conference with Christianity Today magazine and the National Association of Evangelicals in support of creation care. (11) By 2006, eighty-six prominent evangelical leaders signed the Evangelical Climate Initiative to advocate for legislation to combat climate change; 45 percent of the signatories were presidents of either universities, seminaries or colleges in Christian higher education. The President and Board Chair of the Council for Christian Colleges and Universities also signed the document. (12) By 2008, a Green Bible highlighting scripture related to environmental stewardship and creation care was being promoted in environmental circles. (13) Despite these developments, evangelical elites, in particular, have been consistently characterized as oppositional to liberal concerns and culturally divisive. (14) This 'culture wars' myth has contributed to an illusion of monolithic evangelical culture masks evangelical diversity. (15) But evangelicalism's counter-socialization tendencies have contributed to internal polarization, as well, particularly between younger and older evangelicals on a number of social issues. (16) Attitudes toward environmental issues have been identified as more divisive among evangelicals than nonevangelicals, and the evangelical age-based difference is more prominent on environmental concerns than on attitudes toward abortion, same-sex marriage, stem cell research, marijuana use, governmental spending, or the Iraq War. (17) So, although attention to environmental issues among evangelical elites has steadily increased over time, the internal discussion has grown increasingly polarized and politicized over time with partisan lines on environmental debates solidifying by 2004. (18) Environmentalism has been identified as the prime issue where evangelical elites are not in sync with the Christian Right and the national Republican Party. …
The whole purpose of education is to mirrors into windows. --Sydney J. Harris Introduction Although multiple interpretations of Harris' words abound, this paper argues that his quote aptly addresses dilemmas faced by literacy professors. How indeed might scholars and teachers use narrative, both literature and memoir as a way to turn mirrors into windows? Books are sometimes windows, offering views of worlds that may be real or imagined, familiar or strange. These windows are also sliding glass doors, and readers have only to walk through in imagination to become part of whatever world has been created or recreated by the author. When lighting conditions are just right, however, a window can also be a mirror. Literature transforms human experience and reflects it back to us, and in that reflection we can see our own lives and experiences as part of the larger human experience. (Bishop 1990, ix) Might not literature and narrative texts be seen as the perfect vehicle through which readers can explore the lives of others, informed by understanding of self? If the reader does no more than see himself reflected in the novel or short story, how can he fully enter authors' text worlds to understand others' perspectives? Understanding character solely through the reader's lens narrows and limits the possibilities of literature. This paper offers new ways to teach literature so that a reader can learn to look beyond himself to the realities of others. Literature and memoir become the reader's window into the broader human experience rather than a mere reflection of his own. If one imagines for a moment real lives and real ways of making meaning of the world, the Life Histories of people offer valuable insights. They make meaning and help us to better understand the world through narrative and dialogue (Bruffee 1999; Rossiter 1999). Yet, this understanding must at first take on a personal cast, just as the seeing of one in a mirror. As people understand their lives in terms of stories, meaning making takes a narrative form (Bruner 1990), whereas shared meaning and authenticity are at the heart of dialogue (Bakhtin 1986). People relate their own life narratives through the filter of their memories and interpretive meanings. Anthropologists James Peacock and Dorothy Holland (1993) propose using the term life-focused to refer to the history that primarily addresses the factual events and subjective experiences of the subject. How the subject tells the story reflects the meaning the subject has made of his or her life experiences; life stories are also always contextual. Thus Life Histories enlighten the storyteller as he narrates personal experiences that lay bare his being. But the question remains: How do narrators shed their own perspective to wear that of others? Or is it possible to do so? Life Histories constitute one way that readers can understand the nuances of characters, both fictive and real, and bring them to life in ways that is interesting, meaningful and accessible. Linde (1993) argues that Life Histories also show the complex interactions between characters and cultural contexts. Life Histories feature culturally defined landmark events in a life (i.e. birth, death, discrimination), make some sort of evaluative point about how characters want to be seen by their readers, and do not stand alone but are linked in a web to other stories (Linde 1993). Nieto (1992) further supports the possibilities of Life Histories, arguing for the importance of multicultural literature so that all readers may see their lives reflected in texts. She suggests that Life Histories can change the way readers look at the world by offering new perspectives and promoting appreciation for those different than self. These new understandings then give rise to critical inquiry and illuminate the human experience (Nieto 1992). Figure 1 presents the major characteristics of Life Histories: Figure 1. …
Secondhand smoke (SHS) is caused by burning tobacco products that emit up to 7000 chemicals and over 70 carcinogenic compounds. Thirdhand smoke (THS) is solid residue remaining on furniture and carpets, including suspended particles derived from a burned tobacco product. Exposure to these compounds occurs through inhalation, oral ingestion, or dermal uptake. Examples of the tobacco smoke pollutants can include nicotine, benzene, naphthalene, formaldehyde, and nitrosamines related to tobacco. Exposure to SHS and THS are preventable. Infants and young children suffer disproportionately from tobacco-related pediatric disease since they spend much of their time indoors in households and cars. Despite growing awareness of the need to protect children from exposures, a recent survey reported more than 50% of children aged 3 to 11 were exposed to SHS. Although school-based health interventions have targeted healthful nutrition and physical activity among preschoolers and kindergarten, data are scarce for schoolbased activities addressing prevention of exposures to SHS and THS among those aged 4 to 6. We describe the design and future testing of such an intervention. This will be a pilot randomized controlled trial designed to evaluate the feasibility of conducting an intervention for teaching children to protect themselves from exposure to SHS and THS. We will use a mixed methods approach. Qualitative methods will be used to determine perceptions of classroom teachers and student participants aged 4 to 6 about refining the intervention before the feasibility trial. During the trial, three preschools will be recruited for a total of 12 classrooms and randomized to either control or intervention curriculums. The control classrooms will receive a mathematics curriculum. The intervention classrooms will receive a curriculum about awareness and health consequences of exposures to SHS and THS. The primary outcome is the feasibility of conducting the intervention, including recruitment and retention of participants from pre-k and kindergarten classrooms. Two exploratory outcomes will be effectiveness among child participants and acceptance and response of the parents to the intervention. We will evaluate program effectiveness with the Preschool Health and Safety Knowledge Assessment, a reliable and valid measure for gauging the effectiveness for teaching health and safety knowledge. The story depicted in the intervention program chronicles how the main characters identify and successfully avoid SHS and THS. Activities are designed to allow children to play and discover “clean and dirty air.” If the study is successful, we anticipate pursuing external funding sources for conducting a large group-randomized controlled trial. Future intervention iterations will incorporate the use of technology. Forum on Public Policy
Introduction In 2008 the automobile giant General Motors (GM) filed Chapter 11 Bankruptcy and became the largest corporate bankruptcy in American history. Less than a decade later, in 2013, the City of Detroit followed suit and filed a Chapter 9 Bankruptcy, which would also become the largest municipal bankruptcy in history. economic declines of General Motors and Detroit are viewed as benchmarks for the State of Michigan and the American economies. lessening presence of American manufacturing concerns has facilitated the declines of cities such as Detroit as the corporate quests for global expansion continues. Consequently, the problems of unemployment, housing loss, and economic displacement have diminished the luster of the American Dream for many. Displaced American workers are struggling to find a future. However, there has been no government or corporate initiative to accommodate the industrial workers of the past in the 21st Century. Without addressing the issues of wealth creation, education, and job training for the indigent, and the role of contemporary laborers in a global market, we will fan the flames of a class division that will become increasing apparent and volatile. This paper attempts to parallel the rise and fall of General Motors, as a multinational corporation, with the economic decline of the City of Detroit. city and the auto industry are inexplicably linked and reflect the problems of industrial towns entering the 21st Century. transnational influence of GM is focused upon because it places the problem in a more global perspective. It is hoped that this will illustrate how a growing underclass of displaced, disenfranchised citizens is emerging on the American landscape. Creation of the Town American industrial revolution inspired the creation of the company town. Small American communities built around a major employer. These employers became the nucleus for economic and civic life in many American cities. The early Town was like a large family, says Oliver J. Dinus, Associate Professor of Studies at the University of Mississippi (Mohn, 2013). They provided job security, most often for the entire working life of the employee. They also provided a sense of membership and community to their workers. Company towns were paternalistic, providing everything from housing, schools, libraries, places of worship, stores, and parks to better hygiene and medical services (Mohn, 2013). In the 20th Century, Ford Motors, General Motors, and the Chrysler Corporation transcended the concept of the company town to make Detroit an industry town. It became an employment paradise with not one, but three major corporate employers in one industry. At its apex in 1960 the City of Detroit, Michigan was America's 4th largest city with 1.8 million residents. It had approximately 298,000 manufacturing jobs and symbolized the resurgence of the American economy from the Great Depression (Snyder, 2013). Detroit's primary industry was automobile manufacturing, the major employers were the Ford Motor Company, General Motors, and the Chrysler Corporation. Collectively, they became known as The Big 3. During times of war these factories were also converted into munitions plants. This dual purpose provided the auto industry with a secure place in American culture. Golden Era of Opportunity automobile industry was also a major employer of African Americans and other under educated American workers. It has been estimated that by 1930 approximately 120,000 African Americans had migrated from the south to the northern city which borders Canada during the second wave of what is known as The Great Migration. largest percentage of new arrivals came from Alabama, while many others came from Georgia, Tennessee, and Kentucky (BlackDemographics.com). It was the same path of the Underground Railway which ushered runaway slaves from plantations in the South to the freedom of the North or to Canada, with which it shares an international border. …
OBJECTIVES This research is to examine a collective view of the definition and that of the concrete examples of workplace at Japanese universities to enlarge the possibilities of prevention and the resolution of workplace at universities in Japan. Fig. 1 The two stages of the research--This research is divided into two stages. In the first stage of the research, the questionnaire was performed to collect the documents related to the prevention and to collect the basic information about the respondents that have the documents. And in the second stage of this research, I am going to analyze the documents as a text to find the common view of the definitions of the workplace and the cases of workplace written in the documents. In the first half of this article, I will explain the background and the perspectives of this research. And in the next half of this article, I will show the progress at the first stage of the research and the outcome of the questionnaire that was performed from October and November in 2014. The style of the questionnaire was the complete count survey. BACKGROUND Workplace in higher education in Japan has been called academic since 1995. According to Ogoshi(2004) who performed a questionnaire survey with random sampling method for full-time teachers working at Japanese universities in 2002; response rate 38%, number of responses 931, it is reported that there were from a few percent to 20 percent of the respondents each in every items answered that they were victims of and that the lower the rank of the position, the more vulnerable to harassment. They also reported that one fourth of the respondents knew that there were some damaged from academic in their surroundings and the total number of the damaged people reached to 750. In the report of Individual Dispute Resolution System by the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare(2012), the number of people used this system for workplace cases in 2011 was 45,939 and recently the number of the users of part-time workers is increasing. In January 2012, the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare publicly announced the definition of workplace harassment. They stated that the purpose of the prevention of workplace is to respect the dignity and personal rights of workers and that they emphasized that active involvement in prevention and resolution of workplace is important. The national universities (2) were privatized in 2004 in Japan. Since then, the number of part-time teachers, researchers and clerical workers has been increased and the type employment was diversified among workers in the same office. This work environment seems to cause troubles easily and the possibility of the trouble cannot be denied. The damages from workplace on one's career seem to be very serious. However, the preventive measure for Ijime and Iyagarase or workplace at university is not enough in Japan. It is necessary that the universities as the major institutions of higher education should have a collective view of the definition of workplace and of concrete examples of work and it is important that they should share the view to prevent and resolute the problem for the sake of the dignity and personal rights of researchers. However, there has not been any collective view of them among Japanese universities. In this article, I will report the progress and the outcomes of the complete count survey which I started in October 2013 for all the universities in Japan According to the report of the first research performed by Ogoshi et al in 2002 ; the rate of response was 51%, the number of respondents was 114 universities, with regard to the harassment without sexual harassment, there was neither consulting service nor prevention system found in Japanese universities and 25% of universities were carrying out the dispute resolution procedures. …
Introduction: Speaking descriptively, when reading the Old Testament, the only geometric figure that significantly depicts man's relationship to is the line; however, the parabola would seem to be the best model for depicting the Fall of Man in Genesis, and the configuration implicit in Jesus' attempt to salvage fallen mankind. In designing a metaphysical system that strives for theistic moral closure, the straight and narrow line was the traditional juristic pathway to the Kingdom of God. It must have been a conscious choice when turned to the parabolic curve, the circular pasture in which he could serve as Shepherd of all of mankind, the lost sheep brought home while draped around the Shepherd's neck; the Parable was his vehicle for communication. did not choose to express his views in the sic et non form of Judaic Proverbs, and certainly not in the judgmental and vengeance-driven Psalms. parabolic form can be seen as the underlying design of much of what does. It might even be possible to claim that a 'miracle' is a parabolic approach to turning Nature away from the implicit laws of causation. Certainly the concept of a 'resurrection' eliminates the most feared aspect of life, and that is life's ultimate closure--the end of the line, as it is often expressed. Hence, of all his Parables, perhaps the Parable of the redemption of the lost lamb was the key to his intentions. But as the Judaic 'linear' tradition found its way back into the world of Fundamentalist Christianity, the result was the Puritan distortion of the gospel of Jesus. In Genesis and in Salem, Massachusetts, the 'woman' was portrayed as the one who deviated from the 'straight and narrow' pathway. And it was in the activity of 'woman' that 'witchcraft' became feminized, while in the 12th century, the Spanish-born Jewish theologian, Moses Maimonides, attempted to finally explain the sin inherent in the 'bowed' woman made famous in Medieval Christian art. In the 1860's, Lincoln's struggle to hold together a nation metaphysically divided against itself--divided into secular and religious factions--required a geometric feat that came to be seen as The Gettysburg Gospel. Following Geza Vermes' (2009) notion that the Authentic Gospel of Jesus has been overlooked by most of us, we might also note Vermes' claim that simply avoided metaphysical systematization and closure. There was nothing systematic in [Jesus'] message, Vermes argues. He was not a professional theologian who subjected the secret life of to close scrutiny. was an existentialist preacher who endeavored to persuade his disciples to change their lives and to collaborate with him in the great enterprise of preparing the way towards the Kingdom of God (Vermes, p. 406). was not a writer of Psalms and Proverbs. Immersed in the great Oral Tradition of the commoners with whom he lived, his stories or Parables provided the highest level of abstraction he attained. Oral Tradition was committed to a mimetic or imagistic thought process, an instrument that served him well, though he did open the gateway to reflexive thinking. His most convincing image was not the Judaic linear scale which provided a static, juristic measuring device; It was not who uttered Proverb 11 (1): A false balance is abomination to the lord but a just weight is his delight. Nor did this man, who asked us to befriend our enemies, recite Proverb 11 (21): Though hand join hand, the wicked shall not be unpunished but the seed of the righteous shall be delivered. For Jesus, it was not the iron spirit-level of the law that reigned, but the ever-inclusive parabolic love, the pasture and the attentive Shepherd who protected the lost lambs--the poor, the harlots, the pariahs and ostracized. In his attempt to convey what it meant to be human, he moved to the commonplace, adjectival process of being humane and loving. And without resorting to metaphysical definitions, his intention was to convey the sense that being human was a process of individuating others [not normalizing them] through a care-giving, loving attention. …
Introduction Drug courts have been an aspect of the corrections scene for over twenty years. Beginning with the first drug court in Miami, Florida in 1989, there are now 2840 drug courts throughout the United States and territories, serving about 52777 participants who are at risk for substance abuse and dependence (National Drug Court Institute, 2014). This represents about 10 percent of the 1.2 million adults arrested in the United States each year that are at risk for substance abuse and dependence (Sevigny, Fuleihan, & Ferdik, 2013). Drug courts emerged as a means to deal with the burgeoning criminal justice system population within the United States. Between 1973 and 2009, the prison inmate population increased 705 percent coupled with rapid cost increases required to operate prison systems (Henrichson & Delaney, 2012). This boom in inmate populations was associated with several factors to include more stringent sentencing for drug related crimes at the state and federal levels. Since 2010, inmate populations have declined in a majority of American states (Carson & Golinelli, 2013; Desilver, 2014). Part of this decline is attributed to state level changes in drug policies and sentencing, and alternative sentencing and corrections programs to include the drug court program. The drug court movement reaches beyond the United States. Twenty-three nations utilize drug courts, also known as drug treatment courts, in providing services to substance abusing adults and their families (Global Center for Drug Treatment Courts, 2014). These nations are likely to endorse reduction in demand through the use of prescribed maintenance drugs or needle exchange programs rather than advocating total abstinence from all substances as is likely the case in a United States drug court. These nations also view success in terms of reducing drug use and criminal activity opposed to striving for no criminal recidivism or drug use as espoused within United States drug court programs. International Drug Treatment Courts (http://nadcp.org) and Nolan (2010) provide perspectives on international drug courts and comparative practices within these courts and those in the United States . What are Drug Courts Drug courts are an aspect of several types of accountability or problem solving court programs. A drug court is a specific court docket with the purpose of reducing criminal recidivism, substance abuse and increasing the likelihood of successful habilitation among nonviolent substance abuse offenders. Drug courts have central philosophical and empirical principles that guide program operation. Known as the ten key concepts (Huddleston & Marlowe, 2011; United States Department of Justice, 1997), these principles include: * Integration of alcohol and drug treatment with justice system case processing; * Non-adversarial judicial process with prosecution and defense personnel promoting public safety and protecting participant due process rights; * Early identification and prompt placement of eligible participants into the court program; * Participant access to a continuum of alcohol and drug related treatment and rehabilitation services; * Drug abstinence is monitored through frequent alcohol and drug testing; * Coordinated treatment, sanction, and reinforcement strategies are used to respond to participant compliance; * Judicial interaction, oversight, and review with each participant is essential throughout the drug court experience; * Program goals and effectiveness are monitored through systematic program evaluation; * Interdisciplinary education and a multidisciplinary team approach promotes effective court planning, implementation, and operations; * Partnerships are established between community and public organizations and the court to enhance program effectiveness and promote community support. …
INTRODUCTION For religion to be considered a public good, it presupposes that it has attributes and benefits for its adherents and the society. Religion also has the tendency to unleash passions and certitude, a combination that could be both beneficial and dangerous if not handled cautiously by adherents and the society at large. What then is religion? What is public good? What is the relationship between the two? And why does it need a critical appraisal? RELIGION DEFINED Theistic religion essentially involves an attitude to life and death that includes belief in a supernatural being and order which determines a person's way of life, values, expectations and fears. Irrespective of its type, it basically adds a spiritual and moral dimension to the lives of its believers or followers. It is also characterized by conviction, a kind of certitude that is absent in all other forms of belief. It is the conviction that one has found the right way; some having found this way and having found that it gives them comfort, or hope, or joy, are eager--bursting at the seams, in fact--to share this good news with others (Edwards, 2003: 271). Inherent in every religion are moral principles, which are implicit both in religious experience and the belief and actions of adherents. These moral principles are the norms that give religion its specificity. Although their morality is all-encompassing, it aligns with generally accepted paradigm of morality and contributes to the identification of a religion as genuine, beneficial or bogus. Philosophy of religion, the main critical lens applied to religion, is concerned with the norms and standards that religion must follow and must be judged with a view of determining whether it is genuine or spurious. It is concerned with the principles of religion that state the conditions without which religion ceases to be religion and becomes something altogether different (Oshitelu, 2008:19). What are the benefits of religion? BENEFITS OF RELIGION Religion is basically characterized as a private good in any society where there is no official or national religion and where there is freedom of religion. In most of such countries, there is a demarcation between the state and the religion. As a private good, religion is beneficial to its adherents personally in a variety of ways; it gives a certain kind of grounding to an individual that helps to chart a course in the myriad of intersecting junctions and routes through life. Theistic religious belief imparts the necessary wisdom that comes from the Supreme Being. It is needed to guide humans who value their freedom, people who are free in many aspects of their lives. That is, with political freedom and all forms of freedom guaranteed by the Human Rights Declaration, there is need for the guidance of wisdom that does not come from refined culture or education. It must come from the wisdom of a Supreme Being that legislates between clashing aspects of freedom such as clash of selfinterest. According to Tocqueville, religion contains a softening ingredient that would tame any clashes of self-interest and of political freedom, bringing all the clashing sides to the recognition of a higher interest (Tocqueville, 2000: 532) Religion, according to Edwards, adds a spiritual dimension to life that enriches by immersing one in the comfort of upheld religious beliefs, and the opportunity of fellowship with other believers. It evolves in adherents' moral consciousness, disposition and behavior serving as a moral compass in life. It is a positive force helping individuals and it enhances their positive contribution to society (Edwards, 2003: 270). Religious belief (in its non extremist misinterpretation of its religious creed) nurtures the human inclination for compassion and infuses the believer with a will to do good to others, irrespective of whether they hold the same religious belief or not. …
