The Arizona Sky Island Arthropod Project (ASAP) is a new multi-disciplinary research program at the University of Arizona that combines systematics, biogeography, ecology, and population genetics to study origins and patterns of arthropod diversity along elevation gradients and among mountain ranges in the Madrean Sky Island Region. Arthropods represent taxonomically and ecologically diverse organisms that drive key ecosystem processes in this mountain archipelago. Using data from museum specimens and specimens we obtain during long-term collecting and monitoring programs, ASAP will document arthropod species across Arizona's Sky Islands to address a number of fundamental questions about arthropods of this region. Baseline data will be used to determine climatic boundaries for target species, which will then be integrated with climatological models to predict future changes in arthropod communities and distributions in the wake of rapid climate change. ASAP also makes use of the natural laboratory provided by the Sky Islands to investigate ecological and genetic factors that influence diversification and patterns of community assembly. Here, we introduce the project, outline overarching goals, and describe preliminary data from the first year of sampling ground-dwelling beetles and ants in the Santa Catalina Mountains.
Wilderness and Protected Landscapes (WPLs) have long been considered special areas for a variety of reasons including baseline data, impact analyses, protected zones, and other tangible and intangible values. Another salient, and some would argue, a more important value offered through WPLs is that of human transformation. Accordingly, three theories have provided the bulk of the explanatory framework regarding the connection of WPL to human health: (1) attention restoration theory (ART), (2) psycho-evolutionary theory (PET), and (3) intentionally designed experiences (IDE). Transforming experiences associated with WPLs are often strongly related to emotion, affect, and social cognitive variables, such as developmental/therapeutic health, physical health, self-sufficiency, and educational, spiritual, and aesthetic/creativity benefits. The relationship between these types of experiences and transformations of attitude, beliefs, and behaviors in human populations is presented. The Eastern religions, such as Hinduism, Taoism, and Buddhism, and their erudite philosophers, have a long historic link to health, spiritualism, and wilderness environments. In response to this fact, this paper will discuss wilderness and human transformation from both the familiar Western concepts as well as an international (Asian) perspective on wilderness and transformative experiences.
Operational vegetative propagation systems provide a means of bringing new genetic material into forestry programs through the capture of a greater proportion of the genetic gain inherent within a selected tree species. Vegetative propagation systems also provide a method for multiplying superior varieties and/or families identified in tree improvement programs. Twenty years ago, a program at the Forest Biotechnology Centre, BC Research Incorporated (Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada), was initiated to apply somatic embryogenesis technology to conifer species with the intent of creating a commercially viable vegetative propagation system that could produce large numbers of somatic seedlings (then called emblings). As this program was being initiated at the Forest Biotechnology Centre in the early 1990s, there was a perception that seedlings produced through somatic embryogenesis technology might have attributes unsuitable for large scale reforestation programs. To overcome this skepticism, a comprehensive seedling quality assessment program was designed to assess the performance of somatic seedlings. As the somatic embryogenesis technology for conifer seedlings improved, the application of quality practices to the production of somatic seedlings evolved into an approach that is comparable to the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) quality assurance programs now being applied across many industries. The following is a brief history of the evolution of this seedling quality approach (from the author's perspective) applied to conifer seedlings produced with the somatic embryogenesis technology.
Plants have the marvelous ability to take up inorganic mineral nutrients as atoms or simple molecules and process them into proteins, enzymes, and other organic forms. This paper reviews the 14 essential mineral nutrients, their roles within the plant, their target concentrations in tree seedling nursery culture, and their effects on seedling growth and performance after planting. Three areas of active research in tree nutrition over the past 20 years with relevance to the Pacific Northwest are discussed: steady state nutrition, exponential fertilization and nutrient loading; adaptation to nitrogen form in forest soils and organic nutrient uptake; and variation in nitrogen uptake within species.
Limber pine (Pinus flexilis) reaches the northern limit of its range at about 52 degrees latitude in Alberta (AB) and 51 degrees latitude in British Columbia (BC). Most populations are found on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, with a few disjunct populations west of the Continental Divide in southeastern BC.
Increasing demand for hardwood seedlings has prompted research to identify target seedling characteristics that promote hardwood plantation establishment. Operational establishment of hardwood plantations has typically emphasized seed collection from non-improved genetic sources, bareroot nursery seedling production, and spring planting using machine planters. The increasing diversity in objectives of hardwood planting projects, however, has led to identification of a wider range of management options to meet specific goals. Use of container hardwood seedlings may help to reduce transplant stress on harsh sites and improve seedling competitiveness; container production of hardwoods may be most effective using subirrigation. Greater use of genetically improved sources will help to promote hardwood plantations with better stem form, faster growth, and less incidence of disease or insect problems. On nutrient poor sites, exponential nursery nutrient loading may promote translocation of nutrients from reserves to new growth and improve establishment success. Fall outplanting may result in equivalent performance to spring outplanting, thereby extending the outplanting season. With use of larger stocktypes and alternative soil preparation treatments, hand planting may become increasingly common.
The Federal Land Policy & Management Act of 1976 directed the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) to inventory its lands for wilderness characteristics and to protect identified areas as "wilderness study areas" (WSAs) until acted upon by Congress. BLM conducted these inventories and studies between 1976 and 1991, finding nearly 800 areas totaling 9.6 million hectares to possess wilderness characteristics. The remaining areas, released from "interim management" protection, were expected to be further degraded by uses not allowed within WSAs. In the ensuing 20 to 30 years, however, a surprising number of formerly unqualified areas have now been found to meet minimum wilderness criteria. Using Oregon public lands as an example, this paper highlights events, prompted largely by non-governmental organizations conducting "citizen inventories," and renewed wilderness inventory efforts conducted by the BLM, that have led to an unexpected second chance to recognize new areas with wilderness characteristics.
The new born wilderness area "Europe's Wild Heart" is located on the border of two Central European states and is shared by two national parks Bavarian Forest National Park and Sumava National Park. The Bavarian Forest NP with an area of more than 24,000 ha and the Sumava NP with more than 68,000 ha create the largest island of protected nature in the cultural landscape of Central Europe. Mountain spruce forests, peat bogs, and mountain grasslands are the most important habitats of this area, which is also designated as an important location for the protection of the European lynx (Lynx lynx), European otter (Lutra lutra), Capercaillie (Tetrao urogallus), Black stork (Ciconia nigra), and many other important birds. Natural disturbances, mainly windstorms and bark beetle outbreaks, are very important players in the process of re-wilding this area. The common management guidelines for this transboundary wilderness area of the two National Parks have been prepared. The new wilderness area in the border zone of the Czech Republic and Germany with nearly 15,000 ha was established at the 20th anniversary of the end of the Cold War, which gives this wilderness designation a special connotation. Wilderness is not only important for rare species and habitats, but also an important matter for humans.
Liverwort and moss are economically significant weeds across a range of US container production sites, including forest seedling greenhouse culture in the Pacific Northwest. We have demonstrated the effectiveness of essential oils, or distilled plant extracts, in controlling liverwort and moss container weeds over three seasons of trials. When applied at the appropriate concentration and volumes, essential oils act as an effective contact herbicide. There is little or no residual, and under heavy pressure, liverwort and moss can re-establish within 2 weeks of knockdown. The applicator must pay close attention to method and application rates to successfully control weeds while avoiding crop damage, such as leaf or needle burn. Leaf wilt following the first drying cycle has occasionally been observed, with root damage suspected but not confirmed. This paper summarizes integrated pest management practices to limit the invasion and spread of liverwort and moss in containers, details postemergent trial results of directed-spray and over-the-crop herbicide applications, suggests guidelines for species and stocktype stages, and provides a checklist of procedures when applying essential oils.
Seedling production across the southern US for the 2008 to 2009 planting season was 1.05 billion seedlings, a decrease of 53.6 million (5%) from the 2007 to 2008 planting season. The vast majority (90%) of reduction in conifer seedling production from 2008 was bareroot loblolly (Pinus taeda) and slash (P. elliottii) pine. Hardwoods were about 1% of regional seedling production, a decrease of 2.7% from the 2007 planting season. Only 1% of all seedlings were grown in containers, with longleaf pine (P. palustris) comprising the majority of this production. During the past 80 years of tree planting, seedling outplanting peaked at 1.1 million ha (2.7 million ac) in 1991 and has declined annually. In addition to fewer hectares planted and a reduction in seedlings produced, more than 25 forest seedling nurseries have ceased operations since 1995.
Work has been initiated to restore native vegetation on the soil and base gravel layers that were once underneath constructed facilities at the Umatilla Chemical Depot (UMCD) in eastern Oregon. Propagules were collected from native plant species found around the UMCD. Germination success ranged from 0% to 75% for the species tested. Ten species were successfully propagated in sufficient numbers to use in an out planting study to monitor species survival. After three growing seasons, survival ranged from 100% for Opuntia polycantha (pricklypear) to 5.6% for Lupinus sericeus (silky lupine) with average survival over all species at 50%. Further testing is needed to determine what species are best adapted to local environmental conditions.
Subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa [Hook] Nutt.) is a wide-ranging, high-elevation species in the interior of British Columbia. It is commonly harvested-for lumber, but replanting of it is limited. Some reticence is based upon wood quality and rate of growth, but there are also seed and nursery culturing difficulties. This study investigated seedling growth traits of 111 provenances grown in four nurseries. Considerable variation in growth potential was found. The strength of nursery effects and correlations of nursery height to height growth at 5 years in the field are reported. Recommendations for use of genotypes more amenable to nursery culture are presented.
Arkansas has had a long and storied history related to its forests and forestry. Ever since its acquisition in the Louisiana Purchase, timber has played a large role in the socioeconomic development of this state. In the 1880s, it was estimated that Arkansas had about 13 million ha (32 million ac) of forests and several hundred billion board feet of timber, numbers that fell dramatically as commercial lumbering spread across the state. After reaching historic lows in forest coverage and volume around the end of World War II, better conservation measures and the widespread implementation of sustainable forestry and fire suppression has allowed for some recovery of forested cover (now stabilized at about 7.3 million ha [18 million ac]) and a steady increase in timber volume (currently estimated at over 0.8 billion m(3) [27 billion ft(3)]). Over one-third of the timber volume in Arkansas is pine (Pinus spp.), a number that is expected to increase as pine plantations continue to replace natural-origin pine and pine-hardwood stands. Recent changes in ownership, increased management intensity, and threats to the health of Arkansas timberlands will continue to challenge foresters well into the future.
This article gives a brief history of the importance of methyl bromide in the production of forest seedlings in the southern United States and the timeline for the Montreal Protocol and Clean Air Act to phase out ozone-depleting compounds. In addition, the process, steps, and potential for continued MBr use under the Critical Use Exemption and Quarantine Pre-shipment articles within the treaty are discussed. A summary of the re-registration decisions proposed by the US Environmental Protection Agency for the re-registration of all soil fumigants under the Food Quality Protection Act is outlined as well as current status of MBr alternatives available for the production of forest seedlings in the southern United States.
The target Douglas-fir seedling for outplanting on Roseburg Resources Company timberlands is a least-cost, large [stem] caliper 1- to 2-year old bareroot (>8 mm) or container (>6 mm) seedling with good form, high root growth potential, and the ability to withstand browse without the use of browse deterrents. This target is achieved through the use of large cell transplant plugs and low density spring or fall transplanting, or large cell low density container seedlings for outplanting.
Tree improvement has been one of the most successful collaborative research efforts in history, eliciting participation from a wide variety of players. This effort has included state forestry agencies, research universities, integrated forest industries, and the USDA Forest Service. Tree improvement was organized through cooperatives whose objectives were to distribute responsibilities, rights, and rewards fairly and equally. Mergers, which accelerated in the 1990s, followed by land divestitures from integrated forest industries to institutional investors, and the rise of nursery businesses marketing genetics directly to landowners, have resulted in a much more heterogeneous business environment. With increasing disparity in organizational capabilities, changing economic goals, and the increasing costs along with potential benefits of biological research, it is unclear as to whether collaborative tree improvement efforts will remain viable. Game theory offers an explanation as to why tree improvement collaborations have been successful in the past, points out shortcomings in the current cooperative structure, and offers some insights into how we may choose to manage our future.
Morphology is classically defined as the form and structure of individual organisms, as distinct from their anatomy or physiology. We use morphological targets in the nursery because they are easy to measure, and because we can often quantitatively link seedling morphological traits with survival and growth performance in the field. In the 20 years since the Target Seedling Concept was developed, morphological targets remain some of the most commonly used attributes to link seedling quality and field performance. Traits such as, height and root-collar diameter are still standard attributes, but others have also proven their worth despite being more difficult to measure.
Roots are critical to seedling performance after outplanting. Although root quality is not as quick and simple to measure as shoot quality, target root characteristics should be included in any seedling quality assessment program. This paper provides a brief review of root characteristics most commonly targeted for operational seedling production. These are: root mass (with special attention to shoot:root), root fibrosity, root length, root form, and root growth potential.
Planting failures are often attributed to unexpectedly harsh conditions after planting. Characterization of soil water at the planting site, along with associated influences of site preparation" and soil texture, is recommended. Additionally, tree planting technique and seedling biology should be targeted to site conditions.A nursery regime for induction of drought hardening is proposed for hot-lift summer-and fall-planted container conifers.
