Zika virus (ZIKV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus, most prevalent in tropical areas. ZIKV rose to prominence during 2015–2016 due to an outbreak in the Americas leading to the recognition of adverse outcomes with infection during pregnancy. This review highlights the advances of research a decade after this epidemic. During the last decade the epidemiology of ZIKV evolved with the incidence decreasing significantly. Critical advances have been made in the understanding pathophysiology of infection during pregnancy, the effect of prenatal ZIKV exposure in normocephalic infants, the immune response to the virus, and the challenges in vaccine development. ZIKV remains a global public health threat. There are ongoing challenges in preparedness, post-natal sequela care, and prevention strategies. Continued research is needed to fill these gaps.
Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) is a major problem in microbial therapy, as it renders antibiotics ineffective. This arises from natural evolution, antibiotic misuse, healthcare factors, environmental pollution, and social inequalities. The most recent data indicate that environmental reservoirs such as wastewater, agriculture, and soil microbiome communities can contribute significantly to the spread of antimicrobial resistance genes. In addition, the development of genomics-based surveillance tools, along with the use of the One Health approach, has shed light on transmission routes. However, there remains a significant gap in practice due to inadequate stewardship and diagnostic capabilities. This narrative review presents the current evidence on the determinants, transmission, public health impact, and management of antimicrobial resistance, using the One Health approach. Antimicrobial resistance arises from complex interactions among human, animal, and environmental factors, further contributing to increased morbidity, mortality, and medical costs. While the problem of AMR is increasingly recognized worldwide, there are still deficiencies in environmental involvement and policy integration. Despite high-level global policy declarations (e.g., UNGA commitments), actual implementation remains fragmented. Therefore, immediate actions are required by implementing the One Health approach, improving surveillance, and adopting policy and regulatory measures.
This review moves beyond gastrointestinal disease to provide a comprehensive overview of extraintestinal salmonellosis. It seeks to answer: what mechanisms drive systemic invasion, which host factors predispose to disseminated infection, what is the full clinical spectrum, and how can diagnostic and therapeutic challenges be addressed. Emerging research highlights the rapid global spread of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant Salmonella Typhi, alongside resistant non-typhoidal Salmonella (NTS). Advanced molecular diagnostics and imaging are increasingly overcoming the limitations of conventional cultures. New insights into bacterial virulence factors and host susceptibility such as immunocompromise, sickle cell disease, and extremes of age are refining risk stratification. Extraintestinal salmonellosis causes life-threatening bacteremia, endovascular infections, osteomyelitis, meningitis, and visceral abscesses. Antimicrobial resistance severely complicates treatment, necessitating tailored regimens and source control. Prevention through vaccination and carrier management remains critical. Major knowledge gaps persist in pathogenesis, rapid diagnostics, and novel therapeutics, which demand intensified research to address this evolving threat.
This review examines molecular techniques for the detection and genotyping of Toxoplasma gondii across livestock, wildlife, companion animals (including cats) and humans to evaluate their diagnostic utility and epidemiological relevance globally. Detection techniques, including conventional PCR, nested PCR, real-time PCR, and LAMP, are preferred for their high sensitivity and specificity. Advanced methods, including PCR-RFLP, microsatellite analysis, and MLST, are utilized to identify T. gondii genotypes. Molecular analyses revealed considerable genetic diversity, including clonal Types I, II, and III, and atypical recombinant genotypes. Type III predominated in Asia and North America, Type II in Europe and Australia, and atypical genotypes in South America and Africa. Type II was most common among humans and cattle, while genotypes in cats, pigs, sheep, and wildlife varied by geographical region. Integrating sensitive detection with high-resolution genotyping strengthens outbreak investigation and surveillance. However, methodological inconsistencies between PCR-RFLP and MLST hinder global comparisons. Standardizing genotyping approaches is critical for tracking emerging recombinant strains and improving toxoplasmosis control strategies worldwide.
There are more than 30 million vertebrate specimens warehoused in global natural history museums, many with associated tissue subsamples. With > 75
Virus-specific long-acting monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are rapidly transforming the landscape of Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection in infants. This review summarizes the history, development, and efficacy of anti-RSV mAbs. For over two decades, palivizumab represented the only available anti-RSV mAb. Despite its proven efficacy, Palivizumab is costly, short half-lived, and requires monthly administrations. The development of new, long-acting mAbs has recently transformed our approach to RSV prevention. Nirsevimab, targeting the prefusion conformation of the RSV F protein, is able to reduce RSV-associated hospitalizations by 80–90
Acinetobacter baumannii is a major cause of healthcare-associated infections and is classified by the World Health Organization as a critical priority pathogen due to its rapidly increasing antibiotic resistance. Although numerous studies have reported its prevalence and treatment strategies, a comprehensive review till date is lacking. This review aims to analyze the global prevalence, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) patterns, associated infections, and resistance genes of A. baumannii reported between 2015 and 2026. A global rise in multidrug-resistant and carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii has been observed, particularly in Asia, the Middle East, and Africa. Extensively drug-resistant and pandrug-resistant strains are increasingly reported in China, Iran, Greece, and Eastern Europe, with resistance rates exceeding 90
Organoid technology has become a powerful tool for studying tissue architecture, physiological processes and disease mechanisms. While research has largely focused on human and mouse models, expanding organoid technology to non-model species provides new opportunities in various disciplines. This review highlights the development of animal-derived organoids and their value in modeling species-specific traits, infections, and environmental factors. Organoids from species like bats and other taxa offer insights into host-pathogen interactions, immune responses, and evolutionary biology, while reducing the need for live animal testing. Progress in non-model species organoid development is, however, hampered by challenges such as the need for species-specific growth media and lack of standardized protocols. Despite these obstacles, non-model organoids offer ethical, scalable, and physiologically relevant alternatives to traditional in vitro or in vivo models. Advancing their development through common standards, better genomic data, and integration with more complex systems will be key to unlocking their full potential.
This review aims to synthesize genomic evidence on the convergence of antimicrobial resistance and hypervirulence in Klebsiella pneumoniae, focusing on high-risk clones, plasmid dynamics, and global epidemiology. Whole-genome sequencing studies revealed that convergence is increasingly reported but remains unevenly distributed across lineages. ST11 represents a consistent example of stable MDR–hypervirulence convergence, whereas ST15 and ST147 show more limited and context-dependent evidence. Advances in long-read sequencing highlight the role of hybrid plasmids and mobile genetic elements in these evolutionary processes. One Health studies indicate that environmental and non-clinical reservoirs contribute to persistence and dissemination of resistance determinants. Current evidence suggests that the success of K. pneumoniae is driven by a dynamic plasmidome and open pangenome. Although MDR–hypervirulent strains remain relatively uncommon, their clinical impact is significant. Integrating genomic surveillance with epidemiological data is essential for improving risk assessment, guiding infection control strategies, and informing future therapeutic development.
This review synthesises current knowledge on the global burden, distribution, pathogenicity, surveillance, detection and control of foodborne parasites (FBPs), identifies key challenges in monitoring and intervention and highlights emerging strategies to reduce disease impact and improve food safety worldwide. FBPs represent a major but frequently overlooked contributor to global foodborne illnesses, impacting millions of individuals and imposing considerable health and economic burdens. These parasites are primarily transmitted through contaminated food, and their prevalence is strongly influenced by environmental conditions, sanitation infrastructure, and food-handling practices. Effective surveillance is essential for estimating disease burden, identifying high-risk populations and guiding targeted interventions. However, the true burden remains underestimated due to underreporting, fragmented surveillance, and limited diagnostic capacity. Conventional diagnostic methods, such as microscopy and immunoassays, are widely used but lack sensitivity and specificity, particularly for subclinical or mixed infections, whereas molecular, biosensor and AI-based techniques, despite high accuracy, are often inaccessible in resource-limited settings. Control measures, including proper food preparation, access to safe food and targeted treatment of infections, demonstrate effectiveness but are not uniformly implemented across populations. Modern molecular and digital diagnostics improve the speed and sensitivity of detecting foodborne parasites. However, they often detect genetic material without confirming viable or infective stages, which may overestimate actual infection risk. Therefore, combining these tools with viability-based or complementary methods is essential for accurate surveillance and public health response.
Naegleria fowleri, the “brain-eating amoebae,” causes primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, a fulminant and usually fatal infection of the central nervous system. Despite decades of research, mortality exceeds 95 percent, largely due to delayed diagnosis, rapid disease progression, and a narrow therapeutic window. Advances in molecular parasitology, neuroimmunology, and computational modelling now support precision-based approaches. Integrating clinical, molecular, imaging, and pharmacological data within a patient-specific digital twin could enable early prediction of disease trajectory and therapeutic response. Recent studies have revealed virulence factors, immune-evasion strategies, and host inflammatory pathways driving central nervous system injury. Omics-based profiling, drug repurposing, and in-silico pharmacology are identifying candidate therapeutics and data streams suitable for digital-twin integration. Herein, we synthesise current understanding of Naegleria fowleri biology, host responses, and emerging therapies, proposing a digital-twin framework to personalise disease management and transform diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment optimisation.
Human pathogenic fungi are increasingly recognized as major threats to human health, yet their complex biology and interactions with the host remain poorly understood. This review highlights the role of image-based systems biology in fungal infection research, emphasizing how computational models bridge experimental observations and mechanistic understanding. Recent advances in imaging, quantitative image analysis, and mechanistic modeling have enabled dynamic and precise characterization of fungal infections. Integrative studies in Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus have linked measurable cellular behaviors to infection outcomes, revealing how fungal growth, immune evasion, and host responses jointly determine disease progression. Computational models now reproduce infection dynamics, identify key parameters shaping immune control, and guide therapeutic strategies. Coupling quantitative imaging with computational modeling transforms fungal systems biology from descriptive observation to predictive and mechanistic insights, enabling the rational design of diagnostics and therapeutic strategies.
Purpose of review: This review examines how artificial intelligence (AI), deep learning, robotic microscopy, and other emerging digital technologies are reshaping parasitology diagnostics. We aimed to evaluate recent advances, technological opportunities, and the potential of these tools to improve diagnostic equity in regions most affected by parasitic diseases. Recent findings: Over the past several years, AI-driven diagnostic systems have demonstrated high accuracy in detecting malaria, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, and soil-transmitted helminths, often outperforming manual microscopy—particularly for low-intensity or mixed infections. Robotic and automated microscopy platforms have reduced observer variability and increased throughput, while mobile health and edge-computing approaches have expanded feasibility in low-resource settings.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is the most common congenital infection and a major cause of neurodevelopmental delay, but most cases are missed without universal screening. This review summarizes the status of newborn CMV screening, as well as related challenges and outstanding questions. Universal newborn CMV screening programs are increasingly common and benefit large numbers of infected infants missed by clinical suspicion or risk-based screening. Universal newborn CMV screening requires substantial investment but has demonstrated benefits and is predicted to be cost-effective. While CMV PCR of oral swabs confirmed by urine testing is the gold standard for diagnosis in newborns, these samples are not currently routinely obtained. Thus, dried blood spots, which are already universally collected at birth, have been used by most programs, despite the limited sensitivity of this approach. Universal newborn CMV screening has proven to be feasible and beneficial, and additional improvements are possible.
Bacteria are highly adaptive organisms that have evolved various survival strategies to persist and thrive in hostile environments. They especially form polymicrobial biofilms with an intricate microbial community network in a highly regulated fashion. This review covers recent findings on bacterial biofilm pathogenesis and innovative multidisciplinary therapeutic interventions for clinical infections. Bacterial cyclic dimeric guanosine monophosphate (cyclic di-GMP) is a central regulator for biofilm pathogenesis orchestrated by quorum sensing (QS) molecules, allowing prolonged survival, host immune evasion, antibiotic resistance, and augmented virulence with severe health consequences. Biofilms associated with medical devices or wounds pose significant risks due to sessile bacteria, which are notably more resistant to eradication than their planktonic counterparts due to diminished metabolic activities. This phenomenon complicates the treatment of biofilm-associated infections and exacerbates the persistence of chronic illnesses. Novel intervention strategies include CRISPR/Cas9, QS inhibitors, natural antimicrobial peptides, probiotics, antimicrobial nanomaterials, and advanced biophysical remedies. A deeper understanding of the regulation of biofilm pathogenesis will facilitate the development of novel interventions suitable for clinical biofilms in various chronic infections.
This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the mucosal immune system and assess the potential of mucosal vaccines, particularly for COVID-19, as a promising approach in combating respiratory pathogens like SARS-CoV-2. Mucosal immunization has emerged as a viable strategy for COVID-19 vaccination. Various mucosal vaccines, including oral and intranasal formulations, are currently undergoing clinical evaluation in multiple countries. This review examines these vaccine strategies, their status, and highlights recent advancements in the field. This review focuses on mucosal vaccination as a strategic defense against respiratory pathogens by leveraging innate immunity, mucosal antibodies, and memory lymphocytes. While the approach offers significant potential, it faces substantial challenges that limit the effectiveness of current COVID-19 mucosal vaccines. The article outlines these obstacles and proposes targeted strategies to overcome them, contributing to improved pandemic control measures.
The purpose of this review is to highlight the emerging role of lipid metabolism in shaping antifungal resistance and pathogenesis in yeast, with a particular focus on the recent studies on pathogenic species of Candida. While genetic and protein-based mechanisms of resistance have been widely studied, the contribution of lipids, especially sphingolipids, sterols, and phosphoglycerides to drug tolerance, membrane remodelling, and virulence remains underappreciated. Among the various cellular components influencing antifungal resistance and virulence, lipids have emerged as key players, influencing fungal pathogenesis, maintaining membrane integrity, mediating drug resistance, and modulating interactions with the host. A growing body of research has uncovered multiple layers at which lipid metabolism intersects with fungal adaptation, highlighting its centrality in both survival and pathogenicity. This review, though not exhaustive, aims to highlight the expanding role of lipids in antifungal resistance and pathogenesis in pathogenic yeasts.
The unfolded protein response (UPR) is essential for maintaining endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis during stress. In fungal pathogens, UPR contributes not only to protein folding and degradation but also to stress resilience, immune evasion, and virulence. This review aimed to explore the functional significance of UPR and its coordination with ER-associated degradation (ERAD) and ER-protein quality control (ERQC) in clinically relevant fungal pathogens. Core UPR regulators mediate fungal adaptation to host-imposed stress by modulating glycoprotein processing, secretion, and cell wall integrity. Targeting UPR, ERAD, or ERQC components enhances antifungal susceptibility and disrupts fungal pathogenesis. However, the precise molecular roles of evolutionarily conserved and diverged UPR components, the integration of UPR with other stress-response pathways, and the need for pathogen-specific exploration to understand unique adaptations and regulatory mechanisms remain to be elucidated. Understanding the UPR–ERAD–ERQC network reveals new therapeutic vulnerabilities of fungal pathogens. The pharmacological disruption of these pathways may bolster antifungal efficacy and help counter rising drug resistance.
This paper explores the critical role of multi-sector collaboration and integrated interventions within the One Health approach. It highlights the barriers hindering effective collaboration, such as siloed disciplines and sectors, differing priorities, operating within available resources, and institutional fragmentation. The paper emphasizes strategies for overcoming these barriers, including fostering communication, inclusive governance, developing coordinated, multi sectoral surveillance systems, and aligning policies across sectors. Additionally, it examines the potential of nature-based solutions as a powerful tool to address One Health challenges. Nature-based solutions, which involve ecosystem protection and restoration, offer a sustainable way to mitigate zoonotic diseases, enhance biodiversity, and improve human and environmental health outcomes. The paper concludes that improved collaboration, the integration of nature-based solutions, and effective One Health governance can lead to more sustainable, cost-effective, and efficient solutions to global health and environmental challenges, ultimately advancing the goals of One Health and improving health outcomes for people, animals, plants, and our environment.
Entamoeba histolytica is the primary causative agent of amebiasis, with transmission occurring mainly through contaminated food and water. A possible, though secondary, zoonotic component has been identified, involving animal reservoirs, primarily non-human primates and dogs. Recent studies indicate that various amoebae species can colonize the human gut, and specific strains may have animal reservoirs capable of maintaining their life cycle and facilitating zoonotic transmission. This review highlights the importance of animal-to-human transmission of pathogenic, potentially pathogenic, and non-pathogenic amoebae species, and discusses their implications from a public health perspective.
