Since decades, fungi are leveraged in biotechnology to produce high-value compounds used in multiple economic sectors. Strain and process optimisation is based on a comprehensive understanding of the production organism on the cellular and molecular level. Among three antifungal protein families in fungi, consisting of small cysteine-stabilised proteins, it has been shown that, for some family members, bioactivities are also associated with additional functions in their hosts, e.g., carbon metabolism, autophagy, or asexual development. These proteins are interesting as alternative source of novel antifungal drugs. However, their potential impact on biotechnological production is not yet elucidated. In this study, we introduce the antifungal bubble protein “AgBP”, from Aspergillus giganteus and further elucidate the reservoir of bioactive proteins in fungi. We used NCBI PSI-BLAST and subsequent phylogenetic and structural analyses of the Antifungal Protein (AFP), Bubble Protein (BP), and Neosartorya fischeri antifungal protein 2 (NFAP2) family members. We could identify further putative members: 165 AFP-, 102 BP-, and 219 NFAP2-like proteins. Six of the AFP and all 219 NFAP2 family members are not yet assigned on InterPro. All proteins were exclusively identified in fungi. To our best knowledge, this is the first study to report this group of bioactive proteins is shared among the two divisions of Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Phylogenetic tree analyses demonstrate restricted taxonomic distribution within single genera. Furthermore, the comparison of the tertiary structures of all members of the three AFP families clearly separates them from each other and from non-fungal small cysteine-stabilised antifungal proteins. We hypothesise that the three protein families represent a distinct superfamily of evolutionary related proteins. We further hypothesise that these proteins could be categorised as secondary metabolite like molecules of ribosomal origin. For brevity, we named this superfamily BPF (bioactive proteins from fungi). The distribution of BPF members is presumably driven by horizontal gene transfer. Furthermore, we hypothesise that BPF members likely serve rather different biological roles than merely acting as antimicrobials. Their hypothetical classification as potential secondary metabolite like proteins in combination with their occurrence among several biotechnologically relevant fungal genera, e.g., Aspergillus, Penicillium, Trichoderma, Schizophyllum, etc., emphasises their potential relevance for genetic and metabolic engineering.
Abstract Morphological switching in response to environmental stimuli is a well-known phenomenon in fungi, leading to diverse morphotypes. Microscopic observation remains a widely used approach to study these phenotypes, but variation in sample preparation and operator skill can limit the scale of sample processing or introduce operator bias. Although several image-based cell detection tools have been developed, most are tailored to specific applications or limited to a particular taxon. To address the need for a tool applicable to the polymorphic, yeast-like fungus Aureobasidium pullulans , and with potential applicability to other taxa, we developed TU_MyCo-Vision, an Ultralytics YOLO (You Only Look Once) based object detection tool for identifying 13 fungal morphotypes in bright-field microscopic images. Identification of 13 fungal morphotypes, including variation of vacuolated single cells, cells with granular cytoplasmic appearance, and diverse hyphal forms, is achieved by integrating a YOLOv11m-based object detector trained on a custom dataset of 1,504 annotated images and a standalone graphical user interface that enables downstream data analysis and visualization of results. The best-performing model (Zulu_s3) achieved a mean precision of 73.4%, a recall of 66.5%, a mean average precision at 50% IoU (mAP@50) of 73.5%, and a mean average precision at varying IoU thresholds between 50 and 90% IoU (mAP@50–95) of 54.5% across all 13 classes. The single-group analysis pipeline was validated on a 90-image test set, generating six quantitative summaries that capture the distribution and co-occurrence of fungal morphotypes, including absolute counts, relative and mean relative abundance plots, stacked bar plots and clustered heatmaps. Multi-group evaluation on previously unseen datasets comprising Candida albicans , Komagataella phaffi , and Aspergillus niger spores demonstrated that these morphotype profiles can be compared across biologically distinct genera, highlighting the tool’s potential applicability for studying fungal morphological diversity.
Ambrosia beetles rely on obligate fungal partners for survival, and these associations are emerging as model systems for examining the development and evolution of fungal-animal mutualism. However, genetic tools for the manipulation of such mutualistic fungi remain largely lacking, and consequently the genetic basis employed by these fungi to establish associations with their beetle partners remains almost completely unexplored. Here, we provide methods for protoplast generation and transformation of several major filamentous fungal partners of Xyleborus ambrosia beetles including Raffaela arxii, R. fusca, Harringtonia aguacate, and Graphium ambrosium using reporter constructs driven by the H. lauricola gpd promoter sequence. In addition, we developed inducible expression systems for the beetle symbiont, but plant pathogen, H. lauricola, responsible for laurel wilt disease, and show that these constructs are also functional in G. ambrosium. This work demonstrates the utility of H. lauricola genetic parts in transforming diverse groups of fungi and offers a toolbox for their genetic dissection. Fungal strains showed sensitivity to hygromycin, and protoplasts derived from the fungi were transformed with plasmids expressing the hygromycin selective marker (HPH) along with either green- or red-fluorescent proteins (GFP/RFP), with expression driven by the constitutive H. lauricola gpd promoter. Transformed strains for the fungal species described above showing expression of either GFP or RFP were obtained. A series of inducible plasmids using the H. lauricola alcAp-RFP-(ethanol) and glaAp-RFP-(maltose) inducible promoters were also tested and validated. Our data provide methods and tools for genetic manipulation of a wide range of ambrosia beetle fungal symbionts, including marking cells with fluorescent proteins and use of inducible expression systems. Intriguingly, the method/plasmids developed did not result in transformation of the related Xyleborus fungal symbiont, Neocosmospora affinis. The fluorescent strains developed can be used to monitor symbiotic colonization of the beetle host, fungal development in host galleries, host preferences, and a range of other applications, and promoters may be used for further knockout and expression studies.
Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are promising candidates for next-generation therapeutics due to their broad-spectrum activity and reduced propensity for resistance, making them valuable in medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology. However, traditional AMP production methods including isolation from natural sources and chemical synthesis are costly, inefficient, and environmentally unsustainable, particularly for longer or post-translationally modified peptides. While heterologous expression has emerged as a scalable and versatile alternative, its success depends strongly on host selection and tailored optimisation strategies. This review examines recent advances in fungal systems as platforms for AMP production. Fungal systems, and particularly yeasts such as Pichia pastoris, offer rapid growth, low-cost fermentation, secretion capacity, and the ability to perform key post-translational modifications (PTMs), making them leading hosts for recombinant AMPs. We outline strain choice and engineering strategies that enhance AMP yield and bioactivity, including promoter and codon optimisation, secretion signal choice, fusion partners, and the construction of tandem or chimeric AMPs. By integrating current methodologies and case studies, this review aims to guide future efforts toward efficient, scalable, and commercially viable AMP manufacturing in fungal hosts, positioning fungal biotechnology as a key enabler in the development of next-generation antimicrobial solutions.
Fungi have evolved two distinct strategies, white-rot and brown-rot, to degrade lignocellulose in plant biomass. White-rot fungi utilize lignin-modifying enzymes (LMEs) to deconstruct lignin and access carbohydrates, whereas brown-rot fungi, which arose from white-rot ancestral lineages, have largely lost LME activities. Instead, brown-rot fungi rely on a small redox metabolite-mediated Fenton system that generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) to rapidly deconstruct lignocellulose and selectively remove carbohydrates. The abandonment of LMEs in brown-rot fungi suggests an intriguing evolutionary strategy to streamline decay machinery, but it remains unclear why fungi evolved this way. Here, we reintroduced LME genes from the white-rot fungus Trametes versicolor into the model brown-rot fungus Gloeophyllum trabeum to create hybrid fungal systems and evaluate LME function within the Fenton-dominant brown-rot context. Analysis of lignocellulose degradation showed that lignin disruption can be partially restored in LME mutants, thereby shifting the typical carbohydrate-selective decay mode of G. trabeum. However, constitutive LME expression also caused pronounced growth defects and reduced the overall rate of lignocellulose degradation, specifically decreasing cellulose and hemicellulose removal. Correlation analysis between genotypes and phenotypes indicates that LMEs, although prevalently used for delignification in fungi, are fundamentally incompatible with the carbohydrate-selective brown-rot system.
Fungi that feed and thrive on other living fungi and damage those through specific adaptations to this lifestyle are known as mycoparasites. Despite its ecological significance and practical applications in crop protection, this type of parasitism is still poorly understood. Here, we hypothesize that aggressive fungal-fungal parasitic interactions are similar to those between plants and their fungal pathogens. We tested this hypothesis in two ways. First, we analyzed the genetic signatures of the mycoparasitic nutrition mode through the predicted Carbohydrate-Active enZYme (CAZyme) profiles of more than 50 fungi with high-quality reference genomes across the Fungal Kingdom, including mycoparasites and their close relatives. Two predicted CAZyme families, AA3-2 and AA9, appeared to be associated with mycoparasitism. Second, we searched for candidate effectors in protein datasets of three specialist mycoparasites and closely related fungi. Based on the tertiary structures of selected proteins predicted by AlphaFold, we identified protein clusters. Surprisingly, several tertiary structures predicted in three, phylogenetically diverse mycoparasites were homologous to well-studied candidate effectors in a model plant pathogen. One of these protein clusters belonged to the AA9 CAZyme family. These results supported our hypothesis and may represent the first steps towards a unified molecular concept to understand mycoparasitism as a specific nutrition mode guided by candidate effectors.
Glutamate dehydrogenases (GDH; EC 1.4.1.2 and EC 1.4.1.4) play a pivotal role in fungal nitrogen metabolism by catalyzing the reversible conversion of 2-ketoglutarate to L-glutamate. In fungi, NAD- as well as NADP-dependent GDHs function at the interface of ammonia assimilation and glutamate catabolism, contributing to growth, differentiation, and morphogenesis. The evolution of fungi to adapt and occupy various ecological niches is closely aligned to the diversity of regulations of the functions of GDHs, their localisation and biochemical characteristics. This review explores the biochemical, molecular, and structural studies on fungal GDHs, emphasizing their catalytic diversity, coenzyme specificity, and regulatory mechanisms, including phosphorylation, thiol modulation, and allosteric control. Structural elucidations of NADP-GDHs from Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, and Candida albicans provide new insights into cofactor binding, substrate recognition, and inhibitor interactions. Molecular analyses reveal distinct evolutionary trajectories for NAD- and NADP-GDHs across fungal taxa, with GDH-mediated transitions linked to morphogenetic processes such as the yeast-to-hypha (Y-H) switch, highlighting GDHs as promising antifungal drug targets. The comprehensive survey of fungal GDHs presented here emphasises their biochemical versatility, evolutionary significance, and translational potential in agriculture, biosensor development and in industry. The review also highlights gaps in our understanding of fungal GDHs and potential areas for further research.
Fungal volatile organic compounds (FVOCs) play key roles in fungal ecology, physiology, and biotechnological applications, but inconsistent sampling and analytical methods limit biological interpretation and cross-study comparability, underscoring the need for a standardized, validated workflow. We developed and validated a polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)–based volatilomics workflow and evaluated its performance across key methodological dimensions, including solvent extraction bias, static versus dynamic sampling, sorbent reuse, temporal emission resolution, and discrimination of physiological states. Solvent choice (dichloromethane vs. diethyl ether) influenced the quantitative recovery of individual compounds but did not affect the overall FVOC composition detected. Static PDMS and dynamic push–pull sampling produced distinct yet complementary volatilome profiles, with method-specific enrichment across compound classes. Reconditioned PDMS tubing performed equivalently to fresh tubing across repeated deployments, with no detectable decline in compound recovery and multivariate structure. Sequential 96-h sampling captured clear temporal emission patterns in both Trichoderma atroviride and Grosmannia clavigera, revealing species-specific emission trajectories consistent with metabolic stages. Application of the optimized workflow further distinguished T. atroviride morphotypes (white vs. green), which maintained distinct volatile profiles over time and exhibited morphotype-specific emission dynamics in key compounds. The PDMS-based workflow presented here provides a robust and reproducible framework for FVOC analysis, effectively addressing methodological biases, resolving temporal emission dynamics, and discriminating among physiological states. Standardizing PDMS sampling and extraction substantially enhance the biological interpretability and comparability of FVOC data, enabling broader and more reliable applications in fungal ecology, physiology, and biotechnology.
Monascus spp. are highly valuable microbial resources with extensive applications in both the food and pharmaceutical industries. In the food industry, it is often used to impart unique colors and flavors to various food products via fermentation. In the pharmaceutical field, Monascus-fermented substrate is utilized in formulating natural medicines, which exhibit beneficial properties such as lipid-lowering, antioxidant, and anti-tumor effects. However, a critical gap exists: there is currently no dedicated database for the diverse species of Monascus and its secondary metabolites. To address this, this research aims to construct a comprehensive Monascus database that meets the needs of both the research community and industry. We successfully created the database FoodFungi (http://foodfungi.ddai.tech/). This database provides core information including: Basic details of Monascus strains; information on Monascus metabolites; relevant biological information of Monascus. Additionally, the FoodFungi database incorporates a specific function for evaluating changes in regulated Monascus products. The FoodFungi database serves as a crucial support for Monascus-related research and practical applications. By providing organized, accessible information and predictive tools, it effectively promotes the further utilization of Monascus resources and drives the industrial development of Monascus-based products.
Abstract Background Cyanodermella asteris is a fungal endophyte from Aster tataricus that produces plant hormones as well as a range of specialized metabolites. The aim of our study was to explore the potential of this endophytic fungus towards plant hormones besides the auxin indole-3-acetic acid which we recently identified. Results Here, we identified another hormone, jasmonic acid (JA), from culture medium extracts by LC-MS/MS and NMR. JA was also found in the hyphal fraction, but its de novo biosynthesis could not be stimulated by linolenic acid, a known precursor for JA biosynthesis in plants. The growth of C. asteris in media was not inhibited by JA. Only at high concentrations of 1 mM, an inhibition of biomass production was recorded. Putative genes encoding enzymes for JA biosynthesis were identified in the genome, and expression analyses showed an induction of one thioester hydrolase, possibly catalyzing saponification of JA-CoA to free JA. We also investigated its interaction with plant jasmonate biosynthesis and signaling mutants, aoc and jar, respectively, and found that the fungus can complement the JA-deficient phenotypes. Conclusions Further understanding of the biology of JA biosynthesis on C. asteris as well as its interactions with plants is needed to exploit its potential use as a producer of JA.
Salicylic acid (SA) is an important plant hormone but is also produced by microorganisms. Contrary to the well-described roles and biosynthetic pathways of SA in plants, its role in fungal physiology and its biosynthesis within fungi remains largely unclear. Here, we sought to investigate the role of SA in the physiology of Trichoderma spp. and to identify fungal genes responsible for SA biosynthesis in Trichoderma virens, while applying and optimizing a transformation approach recently adapted for Trichoderma atroviride. Significant strain- and species-dependent differences in both SA biosynthesis and growth in the presence of exogenous SA were observed. Furthermore, in certain Trichoderma species SA biosynthesis turned out to be induced by the presence of plant volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Based on plant SA biosynthesis pathways, candidate fungal SA biosynthesis genes were screened and respective T. virens gene deletion mutants generated through application and optimization of an enhanced transformation approach. Gene deletion did not result in a decrease in SA biosynthesis, providing evidence that SA biosynthesis in T. virens is distinct from the canonical plant pathways. Although we were not able to identify genes responsible for SA biosynthesis in T. virens, we uncovered how certain Trichoderma and fungal phytopathogen species are affected by SA in their environment and how SA release by Trichoderma spp. can be affected by the presence of a plant host. Furthermore, we were able to optimize an approach to measuring phytohormones produced by Trichoderma spp. in plate culture and proved the applicability of an optimized transformation approach in T. virens.
During the past decades, the importance of fungal biotechnology in advancing a bioeconomy and a circular economy has been emphasized in both scientific literature, project proposals, awarded grants and social media. Filamentous fungi have been proven to provide sustainable solutions for various industrial applications, ranging from bioremediation and medicine to the production of food, feed, materials, chemicals and energy. This is where we are today, but where could tomorrow’s fungal biotechnology take us? How can the seemingly infinite potential of fungal biotechnology for a circular economy become unlocked? In this editorial, we will cover some of the critical aspects that we believe are essential for the success and impact of fungal biotechnology to a future bioeconomy.
Fusarium head blight, caused by Fusarium graminearum, is one of the most threatening fungal diseases of cereals worldwide. Current practices for control of F. graminearum are not always efficient, as epidemics still occur and there is low resistance in wheat varieties. Therefore, novel antifungal targets must be discovered by analyzing the molecular interaction between F. graminearum and its host. Fungal extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane-bound compartments (30–1000 nm) that carry macromolecules and support fungal virulence, hence the disruption of EV production could lead to reduced fungal pathogenicity. However, EV study is limited by the lack of surface protein markers to aid in their characterization. Therefore, the aim of this report was to target a surface protein marker with an antibody, to unlock advanced EV characterization techniques. Using the list of potential EV markers for Candida albicans, we selected the tetraspanin-like Sur7 to perform immunogold microscopy, revealing that this protein is a surface marker of F. graminearum EVs. SUR7 is present on the surface of some but not all vesicles. EVs carrying SUR7 were larger than those without the marker, suggesting that there are subtypes of fungal EVs. The epitope recognized by the anti-Sur7 antibody is conserved in other Fusarium pathogens, making Sur7 a potential pan-Fusarium EV marker. Our results unlock techniques, such as immunoaffinity chromatography and antibody labeling, to track fungal EVs and understand their biogenesis, which may lead to the development of novel antifungals.
Fungal-based biomaterials are emerging as sustainable alternatives to synthetic polymers, offering biodegradability and low environmental impact. However, the interaction between mycelium and 3D-printed biopolymers, particularly regarding mechanical performance, remains underexplored. This research investigates the tensile behavior of biopolymer specimens produced by Material Extrusion Additive Manufacturing (MEX AM), focusing on the effects of Fomes fomentarius mycelium colonization. The study examines how pre- and post-processing steps, as well as different 3D-printing infill patterns, influence mycelial growth and its mechanical impact. Both pure PLA and PLA_Hemp biopolymers were studied to assess the role of natural particles in fungal interaction and structural performance. The results indicate that mycelial colonization has a minor impact on the mechanical properties of PLA, while PLA_Hemp shows more pronounced, time-dependent effects. Environmental conditions such as humidity and incubation also affect mechanical performance, whereas certain pretreatments, like autoclaving, can significantly weaken the material. Overall, this work provides insight into the integration of mycelium within 3D-printing biopolymers, demonstrating the feasibility of hybrid biocomposites and highlighting both opportunities and challenges, thereby paving the way for more sustainable materials design and construction practices.
The genus Trichoderma (Hypocreaceae, Ascomycota) compromises over 400 known species, that are found in various soils, on plant surfaces and as plant endophytes. Interactions between the mycoparasitic Trichoderma spp. and beneficial ectomycorrhizal fungi such as Laccaria bicolor (Hydnangiaceae, Basidiomycota) can influence the structure of fungal communities and plant symbioses. In this study, we conducted in vitro dual-culture experiments involving L. bicolor and four Trichoderma strains (T. harzianum WM24a1, MS8a1, ES8g1, and T. atrobrunneum) to analyze their metabolic responses in relation to varying degrees of physical contact. Using integrated analyses of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), hyphal metabolomes, and secreted exudates, we uncovered strong contact- and strain-dependent growth inhibition patterns: Trichoderma growth was suppressed under shared headspace, whereas L. bicolor was more strongly inhibited under direct contact. Metabolomic profiling revealed distinct and strain-specific alterations in both VOC and soluble metabolite profiles during co-cultivation, with hundreds of discriminant mass features affected. Key metabolic pathways, including amino acid, carbohydrate, lipid, and secondary metabolite biosynthesis, showed differential enrichment depending on the interaction stage and fungal partner. These results demonstrate that Trichoderma–Laccaria interactions are mediated by dynamic, contact-specific chemical reprogramming and suggest that fungal recognition and competition involve coordinated changes in both volatile and non-volatile metabolite production. Our findings provide a foundation for exploring how such antagonistic interactions may influence tripartite communication in plant-associated microbial networks. They also highlight the potential role of both emitted and secreted fungal metabolites in shaping interaction dynamics through putative non-self-recognition mechanisms.
Fungal volatile organic compounds (fVOCs) serve as crucial mediators in ecological interactions and hold significant potential for applications in agriculture and biotechnology. Fungi establish inter-organism communication through volatile molecules, enabling them to regulate plant growth and interact with diverse soil-dwelling organisms. This study integrates a comprehensive literature survey and bibliometric analysis to capture the complexity and interdisciplinary nature of fVOC research, drawing on PubMed, Google Scholar, and Scopus databases spanning 2000 to 2023. The findings highlight the role of fVOCs as essential chemical messengers in inter-organismic communication, their contribution to sustainable agricultural practices as plant growth promoters, and their significance in human sensory perception, particularly in culinary contexts. Our bibliometric analysis of 3,738 publications maps fVOC research trends worldwide using co-occurrence and -citation analyses. The latter uncovered an early research focus on yeast fermentation and antimicrobial activity, which has since expanded to sustainable agriculture, biofumigation, endophytic fungi, and the development of advanced analytical techniques. Emerging research clusters focus on plant–fungus communication, the biotechnological production of aroma compounds, and the influence of fVOCs on human sensory experiences. The fVOC research field has matured during the last two decades. Promising avenues for future exploration include the improvement of crop resilience, the advancements of eco-friendly technologies, such as biological pest management or VOC-driven fertilisation, and a better understanding of the intricate volatile communication that drives fungal interactions with other kingdoms of life.
Paecilomyces marquandii IBWF 003–21 produces vibrant purple pigmented conidia, the color of which can be attributed to the naphthacenedione natural product saintopin (1). The target compound was previously reported to exhibit potent topoisomerase-inhibitory activity, yet has not been extensively studied nor has the biosynthesis been elucidated. In an effort to elucidate the biosynthesis of 1, we mined the genome of Paecilomyces marquandii for non-reducing polyketide synthases (nrPKS), introduced them into the heterologous host Aspergillus oryzae OP12 and identified a prime candidate for the biosynthesis of 1 we termed stpA. Deletion of stpA in the native producer P. marquandii abolished production of 1, rendering conidia hyaline in color. stpA phylogenetically clusters with clade V nrPKS, canonically requiring trans-acting metallo-β-lactamase-like thioesterases (MβL) for product offloading, however, no MβL is encoded in the vicinity of stpA. Instead, a BLAST-search revealed a single MβL, stpB, encoded elsewhere in the P. marquandii genome, accompanied by a flavin-dependent monooxygenase (FMO), stpC, and an O-methyltransferase, stpD. Heterologous coexpression of stpA and stpC sufficed for reconstituting 1 biosynthesis in A. oryzae OP12 even without additional coexpression of stpB. Coexpression of stpC alongside the decaketide-synthase adaA involved in TAN-1612 biosynthesis also resulted in the production of 1, which implies that the formation of 1 proceeds via a decaketide precursor that is subsequently shortened. While the structure and biosynthesis of 1 are unique compared to other fungal naphthacenediones, further research is necessary to elucidate the elusive mechanism underlying the formation of 1.
Stillage is a byproduct of distilleries which is rich in organic matter, minerals, and acidic components. It is commonly used as animal feed and has high potential for use as an alternative substrate for microorganisms. Filamentous fungi are saprophytes that can utilize stillage solids to grow as threadlike mycelium. The structure and composition of the filamentous mycelium has shown promise to produce pure mycelium materials (PMM), which might have potential to serve as leather-like or other novel materials with improved environmental impact profiles. Basidiomycota fungi (including true mushrooms) species are presently used in industry to produce PMM due to the ease of suppressing sporulation and encouraging vegetative growth. Other fungal phyla such as Mucoromycota offer benefits of faster growth, but suppression of sporulation is often more difficult. The production of PMM is a relatively new area and sufficient quantitative data is lacking on the effective cultivation and processing steps required to optimize the materials for different potential applications. In this study, a cultivation system capable of producing PMM with solid-state fermentation (SSF) of stillage substrate by Mucoromycota fungus Rhizopus microsporus var. oligosporus was designed and tested. The influence of important operational parameters on the aerial mycelium growth characteristics was studied including (1) substrate packing density, (2) external support geometry, (3) substrate carbon-to-nitrogen (C: N) ratio, and (4) aerial delivery of additives. The results showed that stillage was a favorable substrate to produce PMM and that the studied operational parameters allowed for effective control of the mycelium fiber length, density, and moisture content. R. oligosporus displayed rapid growth, enhanced 3 to 4 times compared to Basidiomycota fungus Pleurotus ostreatus (oyster mushroom). Increasing substrate packing density and the length of external supports was found to encourage development of longer aerial mycelium fibers while aerial delivery of additives was found to have limited effects on fiber length but significantly influenced mycelium density and moisture content. It was also found that the use of unprocessed stillage solids was effective at delaying the sporulation of this Mucoromycota fungus and promoting development of aerial mycelium, which was hypothesized to be related to its natively low C: N ratio. Together, these results indicate promise for the efficient production of tunable PMM from inexpensive organic substrates.
New fungal biotechnologies are advancing applied and conservation mycology to support global regenerative outcomes for natural and human systems. Here, we propose the Applied and Conservation Mycology Framework to align fungal biotechnology and Indigenous Knowledge Systems in support of planetary health, “the health of human civilization and the state of the natural systems it depends on.” The Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (KM-GBF) adopted at the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference is humanity’s best effort at reconciling the sustainable development of all societies and biodiversity loss while reaffirming the rights of Indigenous Peoples (IPs). Through Indigenous Data Sovereignty (IDSov) and Governance (IDGov), fungal biotechnologies could help address all 23 KM-GBF Targets. In this opinion paper, we apply Indigenous relational science and knowledge systems to explore how advancements in fungal biotechnology and digital technology enable Indigenous Peoples to develop, practice, and govern fungal biotechnologies for applied and conservation mycology. We focus on the Kara Kichwa Nations, Indigenous Peoples of Ecuador, the Cultural Mountain of Andea, and the Cultural Rainforest of Amazonia. The ACMF centers on fungal biotechnological innovation by Indigenous Peoples and their participation in the global bioeconomy in the service of planetary health and all 23 KM-GBF Targets. We offer a starting point for envisioning future fungal technologies developed by Indigenous Peoples and in service of planetary health.
Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), particularly activated sludge systems, generate significant amounts of various types of waste, including screenings, primary sludge, and secondary sludge. While substantial research has been conducted on the recovery and valorization of sewage sludge, the treatment and utilization of screenings remain underexplored. In response, this study investigates the potential of white rot fungi to degrade cellulose-containing waste screened during the preliminary treatment and examines the production patterns of lignocellulolytic enzymes in the presence of this waste. The studied fungi exhibited variable enzymatic responses depending on the type of substrate, however, their adaptability highlighted the potential in fungal-mediated bioconversion processes. P. dryinus and T. versicolor were identified as strong and adaptive candidates for oxidative enzyme production, with P. dryinus showing laccase activity up to 1691.75 ± 12.22 U/mg and degrading 44.46% of carbohydrates in tested screenings. I. lacteus and B. adusta were predominantly observed in cellulolytic enzyme production, with B. adusta ensuring a 43.49% reduction in carbohydrate content of screenings. As a result of fungal cultivation in WWTP waste, the production potential of 34 to 46 kg of sugars per ton of screenings was determined. Therefore, the study presents a promising approach for the sustainable treatment of screenings and the development of waste management and resource recovery strategies for WWTP-derived waste.
