Scaled urban experiments provide controlled observations for evaluating urban canopy models, but geometric similarity alone does not preserve full-scale thermal response. We investigated envelope conduction and finite interior storage using air- and water-filled observations from the 1:15 SOMUCH urban-array experiment. A simplified building energy model was coupled to offline BEP-Tree by linking multilayer wall and roof conduction to three prognostic interior reservoirs through Robin boundary conditions. This scale-model-specific treatment reduced wall-temperature mean absolute error from 4.43 to 2.48 K for air-filled buildings and from 3.42 to 1.26 K for water-filled buildings; corresponding Fisher-z correlations increased from 0.48 to 0.98 and from 0.51 to 0.96. Indoor-temperature errors were 1.82 and 0.80 K, respectively. Full-scale sensitivity experiments compared conductive scaling, reservoir scaling, and their combination under identical forcing at homologous height. For air-filled buildings, conductive and combined scaling produced similar indoor responses, with errors of 1.09 and 1.03 K, amplitude ratios of 1.27, and phase errors of 0.04 and − 0.19 h. Reservoir scaling alone yielded an amplitude ratio of 0.39 and a 4.74 h delay. For water-filled buildings, combined scaling gave the strongest temporal correlation (0.97) and smallest phase error (0.02 h), although it overestimated diurnal amplitude by 46%. Conventional error measures and harmonic diagnostics provide complementary information on the magnitude, amplitude, and timing of the thermal response. Together, these findings show that envelope Fourier response, reservoir capacitance relative to exchange area, and interior boundary conditions should be evaluated jointly when transferring reduced-scale observations to full-scale urban canopy models.
African cities are expanding rapidly amid a warming climate, intensifying urban heat island (UHI) effects and creating acute challenges for thermal comfort, public health, and urban livability on the continent. Here, we systematically reviewed 243 studies published between 2010 and 2025 to synthesize evidence on UHI magnitude, temporal change, underlying drivers, and the cooling effects of urban green and blue infrastructure (UGBI). Given substantial methodological heterogeneity in thermal metrics, sensors, and reference definitions, findings were synthesised at the study level rather than pooled across non- equivalent measurements. The evidence was geographically concentrated, with four countries accounting for 61% of studies, and predominantly satellite- based (73%); nighttime conditions were examined in only 10% of satellite studies. Furthermore, only 15% of studies directly quantified urban–rural temperature differences. Among studies reporting surface UHI intensity, daytime values were positive in 19 of 22 studies (median 1.7 °C), while all eight studies reporting nighttime intensity found positive values. Arid cities frequently exhibited daytime surface cooling relative to their surroundings but warmer conditions at night, and 39 studies reported surface temperatures exceeding 45 °C.Although urban land surface temperature increased in 62 of 67 studies (median 1.3 °C per decade), the urban–rural thermal contrast intensified in only four of 11 studies that examined its temporal evolution, demonstrating that urban warming cannot be assumed to indicate UHI intensification. Vegetation and water bodies were consistently cooler than built- up surfaces in all studies making these comparisons, although reported cooling varied markedly across thermal variables, from 1.6 °C for air temperature to 11.2 °C for mean radiant temperature, and was contingent on climatic conditions, urban density, and water availability. These findings reveal substantial progress in documenting urban heat across Africa, alongside critical gaps in geographical representation, nocturnal and canopy- layer observations, and the attribution of urban thermal change. Advancing the evidence base requires more consistent reporting, stronger multivariate analyses of interacting drivers, and greater attention to informal settlements and heat- related health outcomes to better inform context- sensitive urban heat adaptation.
