PFAS are commonly used in industrial process. Nonetheless, they are persistent in environment leading to a significant threat to organisms and human health. This perspective review traces the occurrence, extraction including separation and analysis, and removal methods of PFAS in environment to reveal their effectiveness, mechanism, and scalable, also enabling their advancement. The highest PFAS accumulation was found, including PFDS (62.56 ng/g), PFOS (40237 ng/mg), 6:2 FTOH (500 pg/m3), and PFPHpA (43.20 ng/L) in sediment, soil, atmosphere, and surface water. They can accumulate in liver, intestine, muscle, spleen, renal, lung, cytoplasm, plasma, hepatocytes, and placenta. In environment, transport takes place via hydrophobic, electrostatic, ligand exchange, and hydrogen bonds. PFAS contaminate organisms via passive diffusion, active transport, transformation, accumulation, and excretion. Integrated technique is the promising removal strategy since have better performance compared to stand alone technique, whilst temperature, humidity, carbon content, mass ratio, and time transport influence PFAS removals. In the future, these findings will guide strategies to prevent PFAS contamination.
This review examines the interactions and cascading impacts of compound climate extremes, such as concurrent droughts, heatwaves, and floods, under climate change. It highlights their growing yet often overlooked threats to water quality, food security, and ecosystem resilience, and emphasizes their systemic implications for coupled human–environment systems. Recent literature reveals that compound extremes such as concurrent droughts, floods, and heatwaves generate amplified and disproportionate impacts due to their interdependent dynamics. Urbanization intensifies these effects by disrupting hydrological processes and enhancing thermal retention through mechanisms like the urban heat island effect. Despite growing recognition of their complexity, most predictive models remain limited by inadequate feedback integration, insufficient spatiotemporal resolution, and uneven regional adaptation capacities. This review highlights mounting evidence that compound extremes significantly degrade water quality by mobilizing both geogenic and emerging contaminants such as heavy metals, nutrients, pharmaceuticals, and microplastics under shifting flow, temperature, and redox conditions. While quantile-based thresholds and hazard overlays are commonly used for characterizing these events, gaps remain in linking compound hazard typologies with contaminant pathways and water system responses across diverse climatic and infrastructural contexts. This review synthesizes global literature on compound climate extremes to identify event patterns, vulnerabilities, and modeling gaps. It underscores the need for integrated planning, early warning systems, and adaptive governance to manage escalating multi-hazard risks. Particular focus is placed on emerging contaminant mobilization, urban stressors, and scalable resilience strategies, offering actionable insights for climate-informed decision-making.
This review looks at how the chemical forms, movement, and availability of metal and metalloid contaminants affect food safety and public health. It brings together recent developments in detecting these contaminants in soil, water, and food, and points out the move from traditional lab methods to newer diagnostic tools. In the past five years, research has focused on creating electrochemical and spectroscopic sensors for real-time monitoring. The review also points out that more nanomaterials are being used to improve sensitivity. It compares contamination levels in farming systems to international standards and finds important gaps in regulations for new types of metalloids. The findings show that diagnostic techniques have improved a lot, but they are not widely used in the field yet. The review suggests new directions, like portable sensors and better models for identifying chemical forms. These tools are important for solving global farming challenges and keeping the food supply safe over time.
Microwave disinfection technology is rapidly evolving from traditional thermal treatment to controllable physical field-driven methods. Its disinfection effects in water, solid, and air media can rival or even surpass those of chemical disinfection. By re-examining the long-standing debate around thermal and non-thermal effects, this review systematically summarizes the progress in microwave disinfection research. It aims to provide a theoretical basis and forward-looking directions for the development of precise, efficient, and energy-saving microwave disinfection strategies. This review addresses the ambiguity between thermal and non-thermal effects in microwave disinfection, as well as the lack of quantification regarding their synergistic mechanisms, and proposes a comprehensive conceptual framework. Thermal effects achieve rapid inactivation through volumetric heating of dielectric materials; efficient disinfection can be attained within one minute when temperatures reach or exceed 80°C. When electric field strength exceeds 1.5 kV·m⁻¹ and specific absorption rate (SAR) surpasses 5 kW·kg⁻¹, non-thermal effects can act independently of overall temperature, inducing microbial inactivation via electroporation and intracellular reactive oxygen species generation. Compared to a thermal effect baseline of 0.7-1.4 log reduction, non-thermal effects contribute an additional 1.1-1.8 log inactivation, increasing total inactivation efficiency by 2 to 4 times. Under typical low ionic strength aqueous conditions, the transition between dominant thermal and non-thermal effects is determined by a power density threshold of approximately 60 W·L⁻¹. In microwave-assisted advanced oxidation processes (MW-AOPs), confining radical reactions to the catalyst surface reduces energy consumption to 0.08 kWh·log⁻¹. Furthermore, a classification strategy based on microbial structure has been established: Gram-negative (G⁻) bacteria with high-dielectric-loss outer membranes are best suited for continuous-wave treatment, whereas Gram-positive (G⁺) bacteria require pulsed microwave modulation to penetrate their thick peptidoglycan barrier. This review provides a scientific foundation for the rational design of efficient, low-energy microwave disinfection systems.
The booming nanotechnology and the widespread release of engineered nanomaterials (NMs) into agroecosystems have brought about increasing concerns on their environmental fate, mobility and ecological effects. Despite much knowledge on the NMs properties, transport, and toxicity of bulk soils and plants, studies have nearly ignored the rhizosphere as a regulatory interface of significance and mostly its use is taken as a passive medium. Such an exposure-focused approach has constrained mechanistic explanations of highly variable behavior and phytotoxicity of NMs being measured according to plant species, soils and environmental conditions. This review synthesizes current studies to highlight the importance of root exudates as important but under-recognized regulators linking the environmental behavior of NMs with plant responses. Recent studies demonstrate that root exudates play an active and dynamic role in regulating the environmental behavior and phytotoxicity of NMs in the rhizosphere. Root exudate components can alter NMs aggregation, dissolution, surface reactivity, and rhizosphere retention, thereby reshaping their migration pathways and environmental fate. At the same time, increasing evidence suggests that root exudates mediate plant responses to NMs exposure by regulating uptake pathways, metal bioavailability, oxidative stress intensity, detoxification processes, and nutrient homeostasis. These rhizosphere-mediated interactions are now recognized as important drivers underlying the highly variable effects of NMs across different plant species, soil properties, and environmental conditions. This review advances a triadic plant–NMs–environment framework by incorporating rhizosphere chemistry, plant physiology, and transformations of NMs. These insights provide a mechanistic foundation for improving environmental risk assessment and guiding the rational design and sustainable application of nanotechnologies in agricultural systems. In addition, this review identifies the rhizosphere as a dynamic regulatory interface that should be integrated into future studies evaluating the environmental safety and agricultural application of NMs.
Growing concern regarding ecological risks of emerging contaminants (ECs) has highlighted the cell membrane as the primary barrier to cellular ingestion and a critical determinant of cytotoxicity. This paper systematically reviewed computational and experimental studies in the literature related to the transport of ECs across cell lipid membranes, as well as the induced cell damage and toxicity effects. Interaction energies (ΔG_binding, ΔG_trans and ΔG_ads) and diffusion coefficient are key thermodynamic and kinetic parameters governing the transmembrane processes. Cell membrane structures and the pollutant properties together determine the interaction energies. The lateral diffusion coefficients ( D_L ) of cell lipid membranes ranged from 0.62 × 10⁻8 cm²/s to 58.2 × 10⁻8 cm2/s. Interactions between the ECs and phospholipid headgroup of the cell lipid membranes tend to increase D_L , whereas lower D_L values are expected as ECs interact with the hydrophobic tail chains inside the cell lipid membranes. Fluorescence anisotropy, lactate dehydrogenase release, reactive oxygen species and glutathione content are commonly used experimental methods for transmembrane studies. Data from these experiments suggest that higher fluidity of the cell lipid membrane generally promotes transmembrane migration, which hinges on the concentration of ECs. The transport behavior of ECs are closely tied to cytotoxicity effects on cells and microorganisms. There is a need to integrate the computational and experimental data characterizing the kinetic and thermodynamic factors of the transmembrane processes into toxicology and epidemiology studies.A dynamic quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) model is therefore proposed by combining the parameters of transmembrane processes with molecular descriptors. This novel QSAR model is expected to provide advanced predictability and interpretability for toxicity effects and mechanisms.
The global market for Omega-3 fatty acids—such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)—is expanding due to their important roles in human brain development and the prevention of chronic diseases. To meet increasing demand, it is essential to identify alternative production sources. Microalgae have emerged as a sustainable, low-carbon alternative to fish oil–derived Omega-3 fatty acids. For large-scale cultivation of marine microalgae to produce Omega-3 s, seawater is especially promising because of its abundance and rich mineral content. This review explores the potential of coastal biorefineries as an appealing concept for utilizing seawater to produce high-value compounds through microalgae cultivation. Algal production offers a sustainable and consistent alternative to fish oil–based Omega-3 s, addressing both supply limitations and quality issues while supporting the blue bioeconomy. Marine microalgae such as Nannochloropsis sp., Crypthecodinium cohnii, and Phaeodactylum sp., as well as freshwater species such as Chlorella sorokiniana and Scenedesmus sp., are known for their high lipid and Omega-3 content. Notably, the high salt and low nitrogen content of seawater can enhance lipid and Omega-3 production in microalgae. However, to keep the process cost-effective while maintaining product quality, it is essential to carefully remodel upstream and downstream processes—potentially leveraging machine learning and artificial intelligence tools. Using seawater for algal cultivation to produce high-value compounds offers an attractive model for the blue economy. However, process optimization—including strain selection and stress adaptation—is required to efficiently convert seawater nutrients into Omega-3 s. This review summarizes the key factors and technologies necessary for effective use of seawater as a resource for Omega-3 production. Future studies should focus on omics-guided strain selection, synthetic biology–mediated strain engineering, and bioprocess optimization for seawater media to develop high-performance algal lines with superior Omega-3 productivity.
Organic nitrates (ONs), including alkyl nitrates (RONO2) and peroxy nitrates (RO2NO2), are ubiquitous in the atmosphere. This review aims to clarify the critical role of ONs in connecting volatile organic compound oxidation, reactive nitrogen cycling, and secondary pollutant formation. We summarized recent advances in the formation mechanisms, measurement techniques, and atmospheric impacts of ONs, and identified areas for future research. ONs are primarily produced through VOC oxidation under NOx conditions, including daytime RO2 and NO reactions and nighttime NO3 initiated oxidation, with additional contributions from heterogeneous and multiphase processes. Advances in analytical techniques, from chromatography to real-time mass spectrometry such as AMS and CIMS, have enabled improved molecular-level detection of both gas-phase and particulate ONs. Observational studies further reveal strong regional variability. Overall, ONs are key intermediates linking VOC oxidation, reactive nitrogen cycling, and secondary pollutant formation in the atmosphere. Through their roles in SOA formation, ozone regulation, and brown carbon production, ONs influence air quality, atmospheric oxidation capacity, and climate processes. Continued advances in molecular-level observations and mechanistic understanding will be essential for improving atmospheric models and constraining the environmental impacts of ONs. Future progress will require better molecular-level constraints on ON formation and loss pathways, improved representation of multiphase chemistry and gas–particle partitioning in atmospheric models, and expanded observations across polluted, remote, and vertically resolved environments.
Global food insecurity and increasing freshwater scarcity continue to intensify as a result of population growth, urbanisation, climate variability, and the depletion of natural resources. Addressing these interconnected challenges requires a transition away from conventional, resource-intensive food systems toward sustainable protein alternatives that can deliver adequate nutrition with a reduced freshwater demand. Microalgae have emerged as a strong candidate in this context due to their rapid growth rates, broad environmental tolerance, ability to utilise carbon dioxide, and capacity to grow in brackish water, seawater, or nutrient-rich wastewater, thereby substantially lowering their blue-water footprint. While several microalgal species are already produced as single-cell protein (SCP), large-scale deployment across food, health, and industrial applications remains limited by economic, technical, and operational constraints. This review critically evaluates the potential and limitations of microalgae as a scalable solution for food and water security. Considering the increasing digitalisation of biomanufacturing, particular attention is given to the role of computational biology and artificial intelligence (AI)–enabled strategies in overcoming cultivation and process optimisation bottlenecks. Recent advances demonstrate that artificial intelligence (AI) approaches, particularly machine learning (ML), alongside Internet of Things (IoT)-based sensing, can significantly improve resource-use efficiency and nutrient recovery in microalgae production systems. In parallel, the growing application of multi-omics and systems biology tools is generating high-resolution datasets that are increasingly important for the development, validation, and deployment of robust ML models. This review distinguishes itself from previous studies by presenting an integrated perspective that links alternative protein production with environmental sustainability, particularly within the Water–Food–Energy nexus, while systematically examining ML applications across the microalgal bioprocess value chain. Key knowledge gaps, future research priorities, and the practical challenges associated with implementing AI-driven solutions in microalgae-based systems are also critically discussed. Microalgae are a sustainable alternative protein addressing food security and freshwater scarcity. Artificial intelligence, particularly machine learning-based microalgal cultivation optimization, resource efficiency, and nutrient recovery. Digital twins, IoT monitoring, and predictive control reduce economic and operational barriers to scale-up. AI-enabled bioprocessing links alternative proteins to sustainability within the Water–Food–Energy nexus.
Trace organic compounds (TrOCs) are ubiquitous micropollutants present in surface water, groundwater, and wastewater. Due to their persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and biological activity, even trace concentrations may threaten ecosystems and human health. Conventional wastewater treatment often fails to achieve complete removal, prompting the development of sustainable alternatives. This review summarizes recent advances in TrOC removal using free and immobilized enzymes, focusing on oxidoreductases (laccases and peroxidases) and selected hydrolases. Recent studies demonstrate the high efficiency of enzyme-based systems for degrading pharmaceuticals, pesticides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and endocrine-disrupting compounds in both model solutions and real wastewater. Key mechanisms include redox mediation, adsorption–biocatalysis coupling, and immobilization-enhanced enzyme stability, reusability, and inhibitor resistance. Advanced systems such as enzymatic membrane reactors, hybrid catalytic platforms, and multifunctional supports integrating adsorption and electron transfer enhancement show particularly strong performance. Laccase- and hydrolase-based systems achieve 95–99
This review examines the occurrence, monitoring, treatment, and risk of bisphenols—particularly bisphenol A (BPA)—in aquatic environments across Latin America, a region where rapid urbanization and limited wastewater treatment increase vulnerability to contamination. BPA is now widely detected in surface waters, groundwater, wastewater, and occasionally drinking water, often at concentrations comparable to or exceeding those reported globally. Contamination is primarily driven by urban wastewater discharges, insufficient treatment efficiency, and strong surface water–groundwater connectivity. Monitoring remains dominated by chromatographic techniques (GC–MS and LC–MS/MS), although time-integrated approaches such as passive samplers (e.g., o-DGT) show promise in capturing temporal variability. Despite extensive occurrence data, fewer than 20
This review explores the emerging role of electro-fermentation (EF) and its engineering as an advanced bioelectrochemical process for heavy metals removal and recovery from mining wastewater, including acid mine drainage (AMD), tailings effluents, and metal-rich industrial discharges. It specifically communicates recent advancements in electro-fermentation mechanisms, reactor configurations, microbial electron transfer pathways, and integration methods for sustainable mining wastewater remediation. Recent studies indicate that EF engineering improves heavy metal removal via electro-assisted microbial reduction, cathodic metal deposition, sulfide-mediated precipitation, biosorption, and bioaccumulation. These processes are facilitated by extracellular electron transfer (EET), which governs electron exchange between microorganisms and electrodes or other electron acceptors. EET can occur through both direct electron transfer (DET) and indirect/mediated electron transfer (IET/MET) pathways, or may also involve direct interspecies electron transfer (DIET) in microbial consortia. The removal efficiency can be up to 80–99
This review evaluates the potential and limitations of nature-based solutions (NbS), including constructed wetlands and soil- and aquifer-based systems, for the attenuation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in water. It aims to identify which removal and attenuation mechanisms operate under environmentally relevant conditions and to assess the extent to which NbS can contribute to sustainable PFAS management. Recent field- and pilot-scale studies show that PFAS attenuation in NbS is governed mainly by sorption and physical retention and depends strongly on chain length, functional group, and system conditions. Long-chain PFAS are often partially retained, whereas short-chain, ultrashort, and ether-PFAS remain highly mobile. Biological processes appear to contribute primarily to precursor transformation rather than complete mineralisation and may, in some cases, increase terminal PFAS concentrations. NbS function primarily as attenuation and buffering systems rather than complete PFAS removal technologies. Their effective application will likely require hybrid treatment trains, long-term monitoring, and compound-specific system design. These findings highlight key priorities for future research and implementation.
Urban waterways are a vital part of a city’s socio-ecological infrastructure, supporting ecosystems, protecting public health and enhancing urban livability and sustainability. Urban waterways in the Global South are experiencing severe degradation due to rapid urbanization, industrialization, and inadequate sanitation infrastructure, posing adverse impact on public health, flood risk, and urban livability. While urban waterway restoration across developing countries has gained significant attention, existing evidence still remains fragmented. This review aims to bridge the gap by providing current knowledge on restoration strategies, governance frameworks, implementation progress, and documented environmental and socio-economic outcomes of urban waterway restoration in the Global South. The recent literature highlights a diverse urban waterway restoration across the Global South including canal daylighting, constructed wetlands, and community-based management. Studies indicates different technical adoption of nature-based solutions, grey infrastructure, blue–green infrastructure, and hybrid grey–green systems to address high pollution loads, informal urbanization, and resource constraints. Evidence across literature also shows increasing reliance on governance frameworks, particularly Integrated Urban Water Management and polycentric adaptive governance help address institutional fragmentation and enable coordinated action across sectors. This review clearly indicates a shift from single purpose, engineering-driven interventions toward integrated restoration approaches in the Global South. Effective restoration increasingly relies on integrated, context-specific approaches combining nature-based and hybrid infrastructure with adaptive and participatory governance. Across case studies, restoration delivers multiple environmental and socio-economic benefits, but outcomes remain uneven due to persistent constraints, including weak regulatory enforcement, limited long-term financing, competing land uses, and insufficient technical capacity. Overall, the review highlights the importance of reframing urban waterways as multifunctional infrastructure to enable scalable, durable restoration and to advance more resilient, healthy, and equitable urban systems.
Global concern over microplastics (MPs) has recently prompted several investigations owing to their potential deleterious effects on the environment. Accurate MPs detection with ease and robustness is important for better management decisions to maintain environmental sustainability. The present review summarised advanced sensory techniques for MPs detection in environmental matrices, citing limitations of conventional MPs detection techniques. Bio and synthetic receptors, dyes, nanomaterials, and other materials have been reported for the precise visual detection of MPs through their selective adsorption on different polymer types. Advances techniques like Near Infrared (NIR) and microwave spectroscopy, imaging, light-emitting diodes with photodetectors, electrochemical techniques with microfluidic setups, etc., were also reported for sensing MPs. However, limitations remain in terms of the accurate detection of microplastics with good analytical performance in environmental matrices. The inferior MPs detection limit, found in IR and Raman spectroscopy, could be overcome by hyperspectral imaging spectroscopy with high spatial resolution. Even though these sensing techniques are still in their infancy, the review highlights that sensors for MPs detection are possible and achievable with high accuracy. However, more investigation is required to improve the efficacy of sensing techniques through pinpointing their shortcomings.
The continuous discharge of pharmaceutical residues into aquatic environments has become a significant environmental concern. Effluents from healthcare facilities, pharmaceutical manufacturing, and domestic sources contain active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), antibiotics, hormones, and personal care products that pose ecological and human health risks due to their toxicity, persistence, and mutagenic properties. This review evaluates current and emerging treatment strategies, with emphasis on biological, nanomaterial-based, and integrated bionanotechnological approaches for pharmaceutical wastewater remediation. Conventional wastewater treatment plants show limited efficiency in removing pharmaceutical contaminants, leading to their continuous release into aquatic systems and contributing to ecological toxicity and antibiotic resistance. Recent studies highlight the effectiveness of biological approaches, including bacterial, plant-, and algal-based systems, as well as nanomaterial-based technologies such as adsorptive and catalytic nanomaterials. However, these approaches are often limited when applied independently. Emerging research demonstrates that integrating nanomaterials with biological systems into nano–bio hybrid platforms significantly enhances treatment performance. Examples include enzyme-functionalized nanomaterials, magnetic nanoparticle-based biocatalytic systems, and multifunctional nanocomposites. This review provides a comprehensive overview of pharmaceutical wastewater sources, characteristics, and treatment technologies, including standalone biological and nanomaterial-based approaches, followed by their integration. Particular emphasis is placed on nano–bio interaction mechanisms, including adsorption-mediated pollutant concentration, nanomaterial-assisted enzymatic biodegradation, and metabolic priming effects, which improve enzyme stability and degradation efficiency. Key challenges such as scalability, environmental safety, and economic feasibility are highlighted. Future research should focus on developing sustainable and scalable hybrid technologies for effective pharmaceutical wastewater management.
Microorganisms exhibiting high photosynthetic efficiency and strong environmental adaptability, are capable of assimilating nitrogen and phosphorus from wastewater. Microalgal biofilm technology presents a sustainable strategy for integrated wastewater remediation and CO2 capture, primarily due to their ability to overcome the harvesting bottlenecks and high energy consumption associated with suspended cultivation systems. This review systematically evaluates frontier advances in this field, with a primary focus on energy and mass transfer dynamics. We elucidate the fundamental mechanisms and Influencing factors of biofilm formation and growth, including the critical biotic and abiotic factors. The relationship between gas-liquid transfer modes and CO2 bioconversion is critically analyzed, alongside the metabolic pathways for nitrogen, phosphorus, and emerging contaminant removal. By integrating fundamental transport phenomena with nutrient recovery pathways, this review identifies key research trajectories to facilitate the industrial-scale implementation of high-efficiency microalgal biofilm systems.
Reverse osmosis (RO) is increasingly deployed for industrial wastewater reuse and minimal liquid discharge applications, yet persistent challenges related to fouling, membrane durability, and long-term operability continue to restrict performance. While the literature on this topic has expanded rapidly, most studies often isolate innovation in membranes, pretreatment, or modelling, with limited reconciliation of these advances in full-scale industrial constraints. This review critically examines recent industrial wastewater RO studies through an explicit innovation-versus-reality lens to assess how reported advances translate across laboratory, pilot, and full-scale contexts. Across 36 peer-reviewed studies published between 2020 and 2025, lab-scale research predominantly emphasizes short-term performance gains, mechanistic fouling diagnostics, advanced pretreatment, and novel membrane materials and surface modifications under controlled conditions. In contrast, reality-leaning full-scale systems prioritize long term performance and operational continuity, regulatory compliance, retrofit compatibility, and manageable cleaning regimes, often at the expense of peak recovery or flux. Transition-zone studies partially bridge this gap by combining real wastewater, commercial modules, and extended operation, demonstrating that scalability and durability, rather than intrinsic performance, are the primary barriers to technology transfer. This review reveals a persistent mismatch between lab-scale RO research and industrial operating realities. Progress in industrial wastewater RO requires a paradigm shift from short-term optimization toward designs explicitly accounting for variability, lifecycle performance, and system integration. No single membrane or pretreatment strategy is universally applicable; effective implementation depends on context-specific alignment between innovation and operational feasibility. Reframing success metrics around sustained industrial viability is essential to accelerate meaningful adoption of RO technologies.
