This study investigates the spatial and temporal distribution of copper (Cu) in soils affected by long-term atmospheric emissions from a major copper smelter in the Zlatitsa–Pirdop Valley, Bulgaria. The objective is to assess how industrial activity and subsequent technological changes influenced Cu accumulation patterns over a 48-year period (1973–2021). Soil samples were collected along eastward transects at multiple distances from the smelter and analyzed using standard aqua regia digestion followed by atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) techniques. Three temporal datasets (1973, 1995 and 2021) were compared to evaluate long-term changes in Cu concentrations and spatial distribution. The results show a pronounced shift in contamination patterns over time. In 1973, Cu concentrations exhibited a clear decrease with distance from the emission source, indicating localized deposition. In contrast, data from 1995 and 2021 reveal a more complex spatial pattern, with persistently elevated Cu levels at greater distances from the smelter. This change reflects modifications in emission release height, atmospheric dispersion conditions, and long-term redistribution processes. The study demonstrates that Cu behaves as a persistent and poorly mobile contaminant in surface soils, with limited natural attenuation over decadal time scales. Despite significant improvements in emission control technologies after industrial privatization, historical deposition continues to dominate current soil contamination levels. The findings highlight the combined role of anthropogenic emissions, valley topography, meteorological conditions, and local geochemical background in controlling heavy metal distribution. This study contributes to a better understanding of long-term soil contamination dynamics in industrial mountain-valley environments and provides a basis for environmental monitoring and risk assessment strategies.
Arisaema schimperianum (Schott) is an underutilized crop grown in the Gamo highlands of Ethiopia. It supports the food security and livelihoods of local people, while its management and utilization constitute an essential component of ethnobotanical knowledge and food culture within local communities. This study was intended to document the indigenous knowledge of local people concerning the production and utilization of the crop and its uses. A mixed sampling strategy was used for data collection: purposive sampling for districts and kebeles, random sampling for household heads, and a combined purposive and snowball sampling approach to select knowledgeable elders for the study. Ethnobotanical data were collected from a total of 357 informants: 318 through semi-structured interviews, 30 through focus group discussions, and nine through key informant interviews. The results revealed that local people recognize the diversity of A. schimperianum landraces and their associated folk names and classify them. Approximately two-thirds of respondents identified landraces based on morphometric attributes; approximately four-fifths cited the plant as a food crop, and a small fraction (13%) cited it as a source of food, ethnomedicine, and ethnoveterinary medicine, while only a small minority (5%) reported it as a source of food and ethnoveterinary medicine. Planting propagules and managing the farm throughout the dormancy period highlighted growers’ tacit ecological knowledge of the plant’s phenology, while intercropping practices revealed environmentally friendly agriculture. Postharvest practices, namely pulverization and fermentation, have been pivotal traditional skills in making the crop nutritious for human consumption. The local community domesticates, manages, and continues to use the crop, which helps preserve local food traditions and biodiversity. The multiple regression output highlighted that sociodemographic factors (age, gender, education level, occupation, marital status, and family size) significantly influenced informants’ local knowledge (F = 78.507, p < 0.001). Social stigmatization, tedious culinary processes, land-use changes, and lack of promotion have been threatening the sustainability of the crop and associated traditional knowledge.
National parks in Ethiopia face the dual challenge of conserving biodiversity, while sustaining local livelihoods. However, limited empirical evidence exists on how socio-economic, cultural and institutional factors collectively shape community perceptions of conservation policy effectiveness. This study investigates these determinants in Loka Abaya National Park, Sidama Region, Ethiopia, using an integrated framework grounded in Social exchange theory (SET) and the institutional analysis and development (IAD) framework. A mixed-methods approach was employed, combining household surveys (n = 128) with key informant interviews and focus group discussions. Determinants of policy perception were analysed using an ordered logistic regression model. Results reveal that favourable perceptions are driven by higher income, larger farmland size, greater distance from the park, education and involvement in decision-making. Notably, two counter-intuitive findings emerged: prior conflict with park authorities positively predicted favourable perceptions—likely reflecting the visibility of state enforcement—while secure land tenure predicted unfavourable views, possibly due to perceived restrictions on agricultural expansion. Conversely, larger household sizes and negative economic interactions with the Park (driven by widespread resource dependence) significantly predicted unfavourable perceptions. The findings underscore that, without viable alternative livelihoods, restrictive conservation policies exacerbate local vulnerabilities. To reconcile biodiversity goals with human well-being, policy-makers must transition from exclusionary governance to participatory, rights-based co-management. Prioritising equitable benefit-sharing, tenure-sensitive boundary delineation and conservation education are essential to enhancing policy legitimacy and long-term biodiversity outcomes in Ethiopia’s protected areas.
Because they are able to absorb and store atmospheric carbon, mangrove ecosystems help combat climate change. Nevertheless, few studies combining spatial analysis of mangrove carbon stock estimation with estimation of the mangrove area required to offset anthropogenic emissions at the subdistrict level have been conducted in rapidly developing coastal regions. This research aimed to estimate the mangrove area needed to offset anthropogenic carbon emissions in the coastal areas of Gresik Regency, East Java Province, Indonesia. Transects and 10 × 10 m plots were used for field surveys conducted in seven coastal subdistricts. DBH measurements of mangroves were fitted to species-specific allometric equations to determine biomass and carbon stocks. A 2023 Landsat image was used to map mangrove distribution with the help of geographic information system (GIS)-based spatial analyses. Anthropogenic emissions were estimated based on available data for transport, livestock and poultry, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) consumption, and electricity. The results showed that Gresik Subdistrict had the highest total emissions, at 6,795.91 t CO2-eq yr-1, and Ujungpangkah Subdistrict had the highest carbon stock value, at 264,803.16 t C. Spatial analysis showed that Kebomas, Panceng, and Gresik subdistricts needed additional mangrove areas of 52.07 ha, 50.21 ha, and 57.10 ha, respectively, to neutralize emissions under their current emission conditions. These results highlight the need for mangrove restoration as a crucial element of effective regional climate change mitigation and, thus, sustainable coastal management.
Effective management of human–carnivore conflict (HCC) is essential for promoting sustainable coexistence in shared landscapes. This study investigated the patterns, economic costs, determinants, and mitigation strategies of livestock depredation in the Sirso landscape of southern Ethiopia. An agro-ecology-based stratified random sampling approach was used to select six kebeles, from which 343 households were proportionally sampled using a systematic random technique. Data were collected in 2025 through semi-structured interviews and key informant interviews (KIIs). Overall, 43.4% of respondents reported a total of 349 HCC events. Livestock depredation was the predominant form of conflict (74.5%), followed by attacks on humans (19.2%). A total of 1,280 head of livestock were lost during the study period (≈256 annually), with small stock most affected, particularly poultry (39.7%) and sheep (31.3%). The main problematic carnivores identified were spotted hyenas, leopards, jackals, cheetahs, and small carnivores. Agro-ecologically, lowland areas experienced most conflicts (65.7%); spatially, homesteads experienced most conflicts (70.8%). Temporally, conflict peaked in the wet season (77.3%) and at night (65.5%). The estimated carnivore-induced economic loss during the study period was US$118,167.2 (≈US$23,633.4 annually), and spotted hyenas (35.4%, ≈US$41,830.6) were the primary predators. Cattle depredation caused the greatest economic impact on households, amounting to US$80,580.1 during the study period. In response to depredation, most households (58.6%, n = 201) reported lethal control of predators; as a result, 110 carnivores were killed during the study period. Hunting was the most commonly employed retaliatory method (61.83%, n = 68), and spotted hyenas were the most targeted ( n = 50, 45.45%). Applying physical barriers was the most common preventive strategy (40.4%), followed by active guarding (37.2%). The findings highlight the urgent need for context-specific conflict mitigation strategies, improved livestock management practices, and community-based education programs to support both wildlife conservation and rural livelihoods in human-dominated landscapes. The presence of guarding dogs, economic status, and the location of predation were key determinants of livestock depredation. To foster both sustainable wildlife conservation and rural development, effective conflict mitigation and community education are essential.
Data on farmers’ perception of rodent pest status and management intervention are limited in Ethiopia. The study aimed to explore farmers’ perceptions of crop yield loss due to rodents, management interventions and factors influencing their perceptions. Data were collected using a semi-structured questionnaire and analysed in R. The result showed that rodents were important agricultural pests, responsible for an average of 231.7 kg/ha crop yield loss per household annually. Farmers’ perception was significantly influenced by family size, farmland size, age, education and location of the farmlands. With an increase in farmers’ family size, age and farmland size, perceived crop yield loss/kg significantly decreases. Similarly, farmers with informal education experience significantly higher crop yield loss than those with grades 1–5 completed. However, farmers with grade six and above completed experience significantly lower yield loss than those with grades 1–5 completed. Wheat and teff were more susceptible to rodent damage at the growth stage, while maize was at the threshing (harvesting) stage. Most farmers believed that rodent interventions were effective when applied at these crop developmental stages, and rodenticide was the most effective method. Farmers have substantial knowledge to identify the most vulnerable crop developmental stage and management techniques against pest rodents. However, authors recommend that farmers should adopt ecologically-based rodent pest management to reduce crop yield loss and environmental concerns of rodenticides.
Soil pollution by heavy metals has increased due to anthropogenic activities, particularly agriculture, where intensive agrochemical use contributes to contaminant accumulation. Evaluating metal bioavailability is essential to understand potential risks in cultivated soils. This study aimed to assess the presence of heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Cr and Pb) in orange orchard soils by analysing their bioavailable concentrations and the soil physicochemical properties influencing their bioavailability. An exploratory soil sampling was conducted, collecting 60 soil samples from six orchards in the Municipality of Hidalgo. Samples were processed using diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid extraction and quantified by Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. Six soil physicochemical properties were also evaluated. Descriptive statistical parameters and Spearman’s correlation analysis were applied to assess the relationship between variables. The bioavailable concentrations of HMs followed the order Cu > Cr > Pb > Cd, with ranges of 1.1–3.2, 0.1–0.8, 0.2–0.4 and 0.04–0.2 mg/kg, respectively. Significant correlations were observed between particle density and bulk density, porosity, pH and electrical conductivity and the bioavailable concentrations, suggesting a significant association between these properties and heavy metal bioavailability. These findings demonstrate that soil physicochemical properties strongly influence metal mobility and highlight the need for continuous monitoring in agricultural areas. Changes in management practices could alter these properties and increase metal bioavailability, potentially raising toxicological risks.
According to the Lancet Commission, air pollution is one of the single largest environmental causes of premature death in the world. Particulate matter (PM), including metals, is among the pollutants of concern. Bryophytes, especially mosses, have been used for many decades as low-cost biomonitors of environmental deposition of heavy metals. In this exploratory investigation, we use strategically placed Sphagnum moss paired with portable X-ray fluorescence (pXRF) analysis as a living biomonitor for air/particulate metal pollution in and around the city of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. Preliminary results reveal a correlation between urbanization and some metal particulate matter, especially iron. The study warrants further investigation and supports the use of mosses and pXRF spectrometry as a rapid, low per-sample cost, and potentially accurate alternative to conventional metal pollution monitoring.
The use of Eucalyptus species has long been debated due to both their positive and negative environmental impacts. Findings from previous studies and scientific literature indicate that the effects of Eucalyptus on the environment are complex, inconsistent, and highly site-specific. The objective of this study was to evaluate the growth and yield performance of maize (Zea mays L.) under Eucalyptus hedgerow agroforestry practices in Decha Woreda, southwest Ethiopia. The experiment was conducted using a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. The study site was selected due to the widespread practice of eucalyptus maize alley cropping, the importance of maize production in the area, suitable agro-ecological conditions, and the need to evaluate the impact of expanding eucalyptus plantations on crop productivity under smallholder agroforestry systems. Maize growth and yield parameters, including plant height, number of cobs, cob weight, 100-seed weight, biomass, and grain yield, were measured. In addition, tree growth parameters such as diameter at breast height and tree height were recorded to assess the effects of different Eucalyptus species on intercropped maize. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance, and treatment means were separated using the Least Significant Difference test at the 95% probability level. In the first cropping season, maize grain yield did not differ significantly among treatments; however, a yield advantage was observed under river red gums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehn) hedgerows. In the second and third cropping seasons, grain yield differences were significant (P ≤ 0.05) and consistently declined under Eucalyptus hedgerows compared with sole maize cropping. Among the four Eucalyptus species evaluated, flooded gum (Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill ex Maiden) and Sydney blue gum (Eucalyptus saligna Sm.) significantly (P ≤ 0.05) reduced maize grain yield during the second and third cropping seasons. Regarding tree growth performance, Eucalyptus saligna and Eucalyptus grandis exhibited greater height and diameter at breast height, while comparatively reduced growth in height and diameter at breast height was recorded for Eucalyptus camaldulensis and lemon-scented gum (Eucalyptus citriodora Hook.). However, their annual growth rates were not markedly different. The study also revealed no significant effect of Eucalyptus species on soil moisture content near the hedgerows, although relatively higher soil moisture was consistently observed under Eucalyptus camaldulensis over three consecutive years. Therefore, farmers practicing maize intercropping with Eucalyptus camaldulensis in a hedgerow arrangement with sufficient spacing (8 m) between hedgerows can potentially obtain both wood and food from the same unit of land. Nevertheless, appropriate management practices are essential to minimize competition between trees and annual crops, as both are crucial for farmers’ livelihoods.
A team undertaking an expedition to the plateau of Mount Roraima (also known as Roraima-tepui) in Venezuela between April and May 2023 found and documented fresh traces of a fire in the central part of the summit of the mountain, which damaged a large portion of a montane Pantepui habitat with local endemic plant species. The observation has baffled scientists, park guards, and local community leaders, who have never seen a fire in this particular area and worry that the case might be an indicator of increasing threats the unique montane ecosystem could face in the near future. This article provides insight into this case, supplemented with historical records and a discussion of possible causes and consequences of uncontrolled fire occurrences in the high-tepui environment.
In this study, we integrate population theory with experimental data from the literature and from our laboratory experiments to develop a preliminary predator–prey model. This model investigates wing polyphenism in aphids exposed to predators. We propose a system of three ordinary differential equations to simulate interactions among apterous aphids, alate aphids, and their predators. Although essential for biocontrol, predators can induce wing development, enabling aphids to disperse to previously uninfested plantations. Building on the work of Sentis et al. (2019), who found that ladybug presence increases winged offspring production (an effect dependent on the host plant) in Acyrthosiphon pisum, with stronger responses in alfalfa-specialized lineages than in clover-specialized ones, we investigated how host plant type shapes aphid responses using an analogous system with Myzus persicae on broccoli (a favorable host, akin to alfalfa for a strong response) and basil (a repellent host, akin to clover for a weak response). Our model results indicate that predator presence promotes alate formation, a response modulated by the predator’s attack rate, its conversion efficiency, and host plant effects, as plants vary in their attractiveness to different aphid morphs.
Cyperus papyrus is the cornerstone of Lake Tana’s buffer zone, a vital ecosystem supplying the Blue Nile. However, this critical area is under siege from excessive sediment runoff, primarily due to deforestation and unsustainable agricultural practices in the surrounding watershed. The lack of research on papyrus’s response to varying sediment levels has hindered restoration efforts. To address this knowledge gap, a study was conducted between May and October 2020 near Lake Tana. Twelve experimental wetlands were constructed, each divided into four sediment treatments: control (0 cm), low (1 cm), medium (5 cm), and high (10 cm). Papyrus growth parameters, including height, diameter, new shoot count, and above and below-ground biomass, were monitored every two weeks. Results unequivocally indicate that sediment load significantly impacts papyrus growth. Plants subjected to high sediment levels exhibited stunted growth, with reduced height, diameter, and new shoot production compared to those in lower sediment or control conditions. Biomass measurements also revealed a substantial decline in both above and belowground plant matter under high sediment stress. These findings highlight the urgent need for sediment management strategies to protect and restore the papyrus-dominated wetlands of Lake Tana.
Shallow landslides and erosional problems in mountain areas are a recurrent issue that can represent a threat to human life and impact landscape ecology in many ways. Soil bioengineering is an approach that uses biological and ecological knowledge and engineering design principles to restore shallow-landslide-affected slopes. Tree species can be used as elements of soil bioengineering to reduce erosion and provide reinforcement through their roots. For this reason, we estimated the mechanical properties of thin tree roots from three vegetation communities along an elevational gradient. Our results showed that Piper amalago and Pinus teocote consistently exhibited higher mechanical properties than all species analyzed. The absence of a consistent altitudinal trend suggests that local site conditions and species-specific traits have a stronger influence on root mechanics than elevation alone.
Understanding local communities’ attitudes towards wildlife conservation is important for policymakers and conservationists in implementing sustainable wildlife conservation strategies. The present study was undertaken to assess local communities’ attitudes towards wildlife conservation and the types of human–wildlife conflict (HWC) in the Konta Special District (KSD). A total of 95 household respondents were randomly selected for questionnaire interviews from two study kebeles. In addition, focus group discussions (FGD) and personal observations were used to collect qualitative data. Descriptive statistics and the chi-square test were applied to analyze the data. Overall, 51.6% of the respondents reported both crop damage and livestock depredation as the main types of HWC. The respondents ranked baboons (95.8%) and monkeys (65.5%) as the principal wildlife responsible for property damage. Habitat loss (75.6%) was reported as the main threat to wildlife existence. A total of 91.6% of the respondents expressed a positive attitude towards wildlife conservation, and there was no statistically significant difference between study kebeles, sex, or education level of respondents. Guarding (75.8%) was identified as the dominant traditional method used to reduce damage. Development activities should not compromise wildlife conservation goals. Employing effective protection methods and providing alternative livelihoods such as ecotourism, beekeeping, and livestock fattening were recommended to ensure coexistence between humans and wildlife and to promote sustainable development in the KSD.
Denbiq Wetland, located in Bure Woreda of West Gojam, Ethiopia, provides essential ecosystem services that support local livelihoods and biodiversity. This study assessed the wetland’s ecological functions, the socio-economic factors contributing to its degradation, and community-driven conservation strategies. Primary data were collected through structured questionnaires, interviews, focus group discussions, and field observations from a randomly selected sample of 202 households. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression were used for analysis. The findings show that the wetland offers diverse ecosystem services, including provisioning (freshwater, fodder, fruits), regulating (water purification, temperature control), cultural (recreation, tourism), and supporting (habitat, organic matter accumulation) functions. Logistic regression revealed statistically significant influences (p < 0.01): household size was negatively associated with wetland condition, while landholding size and age had positive impacts. Key drivers of degradation include agricultural expansion, overgrazing, reduced upland crop productivity, and limited grazing land. The local community showed strong awareness of, and support for, interventions such as awareness campaigns, establishing buffer zones, and grazing control. These findings underscore the need for integrated, community-based and policy-supported wetland management to maintain ecosystem function while supporting rural livelihoods.
The development of new pesticides as well as new approaches in their application are important challenges for food security. Currently, bioinformatics methods are useful for searching and designing models of molecular target structures, including antiviral, fungicidal, bactericidal, insecticidal, herbicidal drugs and plant growth regulators, which have been recently used in agrochemical research. In this article, we present the findings of a study investigating the molecular mechanisms underlying the binding of fungicides (fluopicolide, propamocarb) to target proteins (cytochrome P450, glutathione-S-transferases) of Phytophthora infestans. Virtual three-dimensional complexes of pesticides and their targets have been created using bioinformatics methods. A new approach for identifying the cavity parameters of binding sites using machine learning technology has been proposed. Rigid docking of pesticides with targets has been carried out and the binding energy calculation showed a high degree of stability of ligand-protein complexes. Our proposed in silico approach may be useful for studying the molecular mechanisms of fungicides action on Phytophthora proteins.
African butterflies play vital ecological roles but face numerous threats. Their protection requires aligning biodiversity conventions with butterfly-specific conservation goals. This review examines how to optimize regional and international conventions for enhanced African butterfly conservation. Through systematic assessment of relevant conventions, their provisions, success stories, and implementation effectiveness, I identify strategies to strengthen conservation outcomes. A comprehensive search of academic databases and official convention resources, using rigorous selection criteria, revealed that international frameworks support butterfly conservation through diverse mechanisms. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) provides a foundational framework for biodiversity protection, including population monitoring and conservation. The African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (ACCNNR) supports butterfly conservation indirectly through sustainable resource use and habitat protection. While climate change remains a significant threat, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) offers mitigation tools. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) regulates butterfly trade, with potential for greater impact through expanded species coverage and aligned strategies. The Ramsar Convention’s wetland focus benefits butterflies when butterfly species are recognized as bioindicators in site management plans, while the World Heritage Convention protects critical habitats. Collectively, these conventions advance butterfly conservation through habitat protection, sustainable practices, awareness-raising, and international cooperation. However, their effectiveness is constrained by resource limitations and data deficiencies. To address these challenges, three key recommendations are proposed: (1) integrating butterfly-specific targets into national biodiversity strategies, (2) strengthening research capacity and enforcement mechanisms, and (3) creating a Pan-African conservation network for coordinated regional action. Additionally, promoting the use of butterflies as bioindicators in climate and land-use policies would simultaneously enhance conservation efforts and support broader ecosystem protection objectives.
This study presents an extended mathematical model, originally developed to explore biomass dynamics in Acromyrmex ants and their symbiotic fungus, which has been adapted to investigate biomass growth in Atta sexdens and its fungal partner. The model incorporates ant grooming as a defence against entomopathogenic fungi, building on experimental data where self-grooming and allogrooming were quantified across three groups: Metarhizium anisopliae, Escovopsis phialicopiosa, and a control. A second chamber was introduced to simulate biomass transfer between compartments. Inflection points in growth curves were identified to detect shifts in population dynamics, and bifurcation diagrams explored key parameters affecting system stability, namely worker allocation to fungal cultivation, ant mortality, and fungal mortality. Metarhizium anisopliae significantly reduced both ant and fungal biomass, even under optimal grooming conditions, owing to its direct virulence to workers. In contrast, E. phialicopiosa, an opportunistic pathogen, had minimal impact unless fungal mortality exceeded a critical threshold. Self-grooming proved more effective than allogrooming in mitigating M. anisopliae effects, likely owing to prioritisation of individual defences under high pathogen pressure. Spatial dynamics enhanced resilience: one-way transfer between chambers redistributed biomass, delaying inflection points and bolstering structural stability. Bifurcation analysis revealed that extreme proportions of workers cultivating the symbiotic fungus reduced the biomass for both partners, whilst ant and fungal mortality rates led to non-linear declines in most simulations. These findings underscore the role of multi-chamber architecture in mitigating pathogen impacts in Atta colonies and suggest potential applications for biological control strategies by identifying behavioural and structural factors that may limit or enhance the effectiveness of pathogenic fungi in field settings. The model provides a useful framework for understanding epidemiological dynamics in natural nests, integrating behavioural defences and spatial strategies to safeguard this mutualism.
One of the main problems of the world's oceans, reported by many scientific studies, is the microplastic pollution. Within the Black Sea, one of the main sources of pollution is the same, which is caused by the diverse anthropogenic activities. The present study demonstrated detailed microplastics contamination of in five fish species important for the commercial fishing (Garfish, Мullet, Knout goby, Pontic shad and Mediterranean horse mackerel). They were collected from the Sozopol area on the Bulgarian Black Sea coast. Within each microplastic morphological group, three size classes were recognised: 100–200 µm, 25–100 µm and ≤ 25 µm. Microplastics were found in all studied tissues of the fish, but in varying proportions of pellets, fibres and fragments. Pellets were most frequently isolated, followed by irregularly-shaped fragments and fibres were the least numerous. The bulk of insulated plastics are made of polyethylene (PE) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Our results pointed out serious pollution with plastic particles in the Bulgarian Black Sea aquatory, which, in the future, may seriously affect the health of the fish population and also human health.
Studies documenting anthropogenic disturbance-driven changes in forest communities of the Eastern Himalaya, a global biodiversity hot spot, are largely lacking. We studied six forest sites of tropical semi-evergreen forests in Arunachal Pradesh in the Eastern Himalaya to understand the effects of varying disturbance intensities on the forest community structure and composition. Based on the magnitude of disturbance, forest sites were classified as experiencing low, moderate and high disturbance. Mean species richness (SR) of trees and shrubs decreased from low disturbance to high disturbance. Mean SR of herbs was maximum in moderately disturbed forest sites. Maximum values of the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (SD) were recorded for trees at sites with low disturbance, for shrubs at sites with high disturbance and for herbs in moderately disturbed forests. Pilelou Evenness Index (EI) values were maximum for trees at sites with high disturbance, while maximum EI values for shrubs and herbs were recorded in the forest sites with low disturbance. The number of tree families decreased from 18 to 13 in the forests with low and high disturbance, respectively. Moderate disturbance led to increased herb species richness and diversity, while increasing disturbance produced contrasting effects on trees. High anthropogenic disturbance led to low species richness, but high diversity amongst shrubs. Our investigations suggest that the magnitude of disturbance elicits differential responses in different physiognomic classes in the forest ecosystems and further our understanding of the effects of disturbance in tropical forest ecosystems of a global biodiversity hotspot.
