Polymers such as Styrene Maleic Acid (SMA) have become valuable tools for studying membrane proteins within lipid bilayers due to their ability to solubilize membrane proteins in their native environments. However, limitations in the use of SMA copolymers have led to the development of SMA derivatives. In this study, we investigate the impact of the charge properties of several SMA derivatives on various lipid systems, which may also carry charges. We employed neutral, positively charged, and negatively charged SMA-derivative copolymers (SMA-Neut, SMA-Pos, SMA-AE, SMA Glu, and SMA-BZ30) to investigate their impact on bilayers composed of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC), 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoglycerol (POPG), and a 9:1 molar ratio mixture of POPC and POPG. No single technique, however, is effective across the wide array of different MPs, and there are often significant discrepancies between structures determined by different methods if the protein's environment is far from a native lipid bilayer. In this study, we utilized biophysical techniques, including dynamic light scattering (DLS), electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, and solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) spectroscopy, to analyze the interactions between polymers and lipid bilayers. Our EPR findings indicate that all the polymers preserved the POPC/POPG lipid bilayer. Meanwhile, our ssNMR result analysis suggests that neutral polymers may disrupt the bilayer less than charged polymers do. This implies that the electrostatic interactions between charged polymers and lipids can significantly alter the native environment of the bilayer, potentially impacting the stability and dynamics of encapsulated membrane proteins. Although this work primarily focuses on lipid systems, our results underscore the importance of considering polymer-lipid electrostatic interactions when selecting SMA derivatives and polymers for biophysical studies of membrane proteins, as the choice of polymer can profoundly affect the integrity and behavior of the lipid bilayer system.
Environmental factors such as temperature and ion concentration can induce the phase transition from the liquid-crystalline to gel phase. In our work, we investigate the effect of temperatures and NaCl concentrations on phase transitions for two model lipids, i.e., an ether linked lipid with methyl branches (phosphatidyl glycerophosphate methyl ester, PGP-Me) and a more common ester phospholipid (dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine, DMPC). At 5.0 M NaCl 30 °C, the temperature closest to DMPC's phase transition temperature (Tm) in pure water, DMPC experiences a phase transition, but PGP-Me does not. Since PGP-Me is a model lipid for those found in archaea, it suggests that salt resistance for archaea might be related to maintaining a fluid phase at high salt concentrations. This is supported as the lipid surface areas, membrane compressibility, chain order, and electron density profiles all show that at 30 °C between 0.1 M and 5.0 M NaCl, PGP-Me has smaller changes than DMPC, meaning that PGP-Me maintains membrane fluidity more effectively. The sn-1 phosphate/carbonyl electrostatic interactions are primarily responsible for the phase transition in DMPC, while these electrostatic interactions are no longer chain specific in the gel phase. PGP-Me resists the phase transition better than DMPC because its methyl branches prevent tight lipid packing and its ether linkages decrease the interaction with Na+ ions. These quantitative measurements of the electrostatic interaction types formed during the liquid-crystalline, phase transition, gel phase, and by chain specificity uncover the mechanism of the phase transition induced by Na+ ions and is confirmed through our machine learning process.
Cationic carbosilane dendrimers are promising nonviral vectors for the delivery of drugs and nucleic acids, however, their interaction with bloodstream molecules is incompletely understood. In this study, we investigated the interactions of a novel family of pH-tunable charge cationic carbosilane dendrimers of three generations G1: ArG₁(NMe₂HCl)₆, G2: ArG₂(NMe₂HCl)₁₂ and G3: ArG₃(NMe₂HCl)₂₄ with model 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoglycerol (DPPG) lipid membranes and human serum albumin (HSA), using dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), fluorescence spectroscopy, circular dichroism, and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). All three kinds of dendrimers formed stable complexes with negatively charged liposomes, inducing generation-dependent changes in hydrodynamic diameter and surface charge. DSC analysis demonstrated that G1 dendrimer destabilized the DMPC/DPPG bilayer in a concentration-dependent manner, perturbing both the polar headgroup region and the hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain region of the membrane. TEM imaging revealed generation-dependent differences in the extent of membrane disruption. Interactions with HSA were confirmed by tryptophan fluorescence quenching and circular dichroism, which showed a generation-dependent decrease in α-helix content indicative of partial protein unfolding. ITC analysis of the G1/HSA interaction demonstrated a spontaneous, exothermic binding process. In conclusion, studied dendrimers interact with both DMPC/DPPG lipid bilayers and HSA in a manner that is generation-dependent (DLS, zeta potential, TEM, CD, fluorescence) and concentration-dependent (DSC, ITC, characterized for the representative G1 dendrimer), suggesting that their generation and charge density are key determinants of their behavior toward biological membranes and plasma proteins.
Streptococcus suis is a major swine pathogen with zoonotic potential, responsible for substantial economic losses to the swine industry worldwide. The nature of its bacterial cell wall components and their role in virulence have not been fully elucidated yet. We herein report the isolation and structural characterization of the glycosyldiacylglycerols produced by S. suis. In four selected strains, we show the presence of 1,2-diacyl-3-O-(α-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→2)-α-D-glucopyranosyl)-sn-glycerol and 1,2-diacyl-3-O-(α-D-glucopyranosyl)-sn-glycerol, both frequently found in streptococci and some other bacteria. In addition, 1,2-diacyl-3-O-(β-D-galactofuranosyl)-sn-glycerol was identified in all investigated strains, a molecule only rarely described in other streptococci and so far not in other bacterial species. Enzymes putatively involved in the biosynthesis of these glycosyldiacylglycerols were identified by BLASTP homology search. Genes encoding these enzymes showed an important degree of conservation across a global S. suis strain collection, with BLASTN analysis revealing high nucleotide identity (mean 94.7-99.2%) and consistent near-complete query coverage. Together, these findings suggest that glycosyldiacylglycerol biosynthesis is broadly maintained across S. suis.
In this work, the effects of two UV filters - avobenzone and oxybenzone - on the membranes of fibroblasts and keratinocytes in ex vivo model systems (Langmuir monolayers) and cell line experiments were examined. The goal of these studies was to analyze the significance of lipid structures in the mechanism of UV filter-induced toxicity to skin cells. Monolayers composed of lipids characteristic of mammalian cell membranes - namely phosphatidylcholine (SOPC), sphingomyelin (SM), cholesterol (Chol) and ceramides (Ceramide 22 and Ceramide 17) - were used as model systems. Both mixed monolayers mimicking fibroblast and keratinocyte membranes and one-component lipid films were investigated. The surface pressure/area measurements and penetration studies were done, and Brewster angle microscopy was applied to verify the morphology of the studied systems. It was found that avobenzone has a stronger impact on molecular organization of skin cell model membranes than oxybenzone; however, its effect is concentration-limited. Both UV filters exhibited stronger affinity to Chol, SM and SOPC monolayers than to ceramides, which are the lipids characteristic for skin cells. Therefore, it can be suggested that ceramides may hinder the penetration of UV filter molecules into the interior of skin cells. Cell line model studied with SEM microscopy suggested that UV filters alter the skin cell membrane. Finally, it was summarized that the mechanism of UV filter toxicity is complex, but one of its important elements is the impact on the organization of lipid structures.
The transport of substances between the cell and its environment is influenced by lipid redistribution within and between membrane leaflets. The mechanism of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) passing through membranes depends on the peptide's characteristics and the lipid composition. This study examined interactions between mixed lipid membranes composed of 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) and varying anionic lipids (1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylglycerol (DPPG) or 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoserine (DPPS)), along with CPPs that share a hydrophobic group (tryptophan (W)) and a variable positively charged group (arginine (R) or lysine (K)). Results showed that the presence of peptides significantly affected the thermotropic properties of the DPPC + DPPS mixture more than the DPPC + DPPG mixture, with changes depending on the cationic amino acid. FTIR spectra and MD simulations indicated that peptide penetration depth is more influenced by anionic lipids than the lipid phase. Importantly, interactions with DPPG or DPPS lipids caused qualitatively different alterations in the bilayer's non-polar region, with R5W2 displaying greater insertion capacity than K5W2. These findings suggest that the interactions between CPPs and the lipid bilayer's polar groups have broader effects on the entire membrane structure.
As a member of short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) superfamily, dehydrogenase/reductase (DHRS) is mainly involved in the metabolism of many substrates such as lipids, steroids and retinol. The DHRS family comprises more than 12 members, including DHRS1 - 4, DHRS6 - 13, among others. Several members have been extensively studied and implicated in tumorigenesis and cancer progression, such as DHRS2 involved in lipid metabolism, DHRS3/4/9/13 mediating all-trans retinoic acid biosynthesis, DHRS8/10/11 regulating steroid metabolism and DHRS6 maintaining intracellular iron homeostasis. Although the functions of other DHRS members remain poorly characterized, emerging evidence also suggests their association with cancer. Here, we provide an overview of the DHRS family members and highlight their roles in cancer progression.
Electroporation refers to the formation of pores in the membranes of cells or vesicles induced by an electric field. This technique is widely applied in gene therapy, drug delivery, cancer treatment, and molecular biology to enhance the uptake of nucleic acids, proteins, or drugs into cells by temporarily permeabilizing their membranes using an electric field. In this report, we have investigated pore dynamics in charged, neutral, and cholesterol-containing membranes under constant and pulsating direct current (DC) electric fields of 0.3V/nm using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and we have presented a comparative analysis of the resulting pore behaviors. Under a constant DC electric field, pore opening occurred faster than pore closing. In contrast, under a pulsating DC field, the pore opening time was longer than the pore closing time. Additionally, the cholesterol-containing bilayer required a longer time to initiate pore formation compared to charged and neutral membrane systems. Moreover, the pulsating DC electric field-induced poration time was longer compared to the constant DC field-induced poration time for charged, neutral, and cholesterol-containing membranes. At the moment of pore formation, the solvent accessible surface area, the number of hydrogen bonds, dipole moment, and dielectric constant for all the models rapidly increased, which helped to elucidate precisely the pore dynamics. These findings might be helpful in design a more effective membrane-based electroporation techniques that have significant biotechnological and biomedical applications.
7-Ketocholesterol (7KC) is mainly formed by cholesterol autoxidation and is a pro-oxidant and pro-inflammatory bioactive lipid that also induces different types of cell death, including oxiapoptophagy. It is frequently associated with major age-related diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, age-related macular degeneration, and Alzheimer's disease. 7KC can therefore be considered a biomarker for these diseases, offering the possibility of developing theranostic strategies combining diagnosis and treatment. Currently, all the elements are in place to develop tools for the design of theranostic therapies targeting 7KC in diseased organs: antibodies, nanoparticles used as nanoplatforms, molecules that neutralize 7KC such as enzymes which degrade it, as well as natural or synthetic compounds that inhibit the cytotoxic signaling pathways associated with oxidative stress, inflammation and cell death activated by 7KC. Identifying and neutralizing 7KC biological activities using a theranostic approach could also be of interest for growing medical fields such as space medicine widely concerned by oxidative stress, aging and age-related diseases, driven by microgravity. This review supports that most of key tools are now available to develop theranostic treatments targeting 7KC in age-related pathologies, especially in cardiovascular diseases associated with atheroma, but also in age-related macular degeneration and Alzheimer's disease. Discovery of effective treatments for these diseases is a major challenge and will answer an important need for both patients and caregivers.
The structure of well-hydrated, single-component, lipid bilayers is reviewed. Definitions are provided for the parameters that describe structure at various levels of refinement. Comparisons in the structure are made for lipids with different head groups and hydrocarbon chains. Experimental methods include x-ray scattering, neutron scattering, NMR, and densimetry. Interpretation of the scattering experiments is reviewed in some detail and critically examined. Comparison is made to structural parameters obtained from simulations. Chain disordered fluid phase structure is compared to chain ordered gel phase structure, and other chain ordered structures are also briefly reviewed. Even for these simple lipid bilayers, some structural aspects remain unresolved and await further research.
Lipid Nanoparticles (LDE) have been used as a drug delivery vehicle to treat various diseases. LDEs resemble the structure of human low-density lipoprotein (LDL), but lack apoliprotein B (apo-B). The aim of this study was to determine whether changes in the proportion of unesterified cholesterol (UC) or triacylglycerols (TG) affect the physical stability of LDE in aqueous solutions over a six-month observation period, as analysed by Ultra Small-angle X-ray Scattering (USAXS), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and zeta potential measurements. It was shown that variations in UC or TG content in the initial lipid mixture did not alter the size of the resulting LDE nanoparticles, which remained within the 30-35 nm range. This particle size was maintained for up to three months in formulations with varying TG content and up to four months in those with varying UC content. Thereafter, a progressive increase in nanoparticle size was observed, which suggests enhanced aggregate formation and reduced of LDE stability between 3 and 6 months of storage. This loss of stability did not appear to be directly related to changes in UC or TG composition. Notably, USAXS and DLS measurements yielded comparable results, which reinforces the reliability of the data. In addition, the zeta potential remained close to zero for all seven nanoparticle compositions throughout the six months, indicating that all LDE formulations had electrostatic neutral potential and remain so when they progressively aggregate with time. Complementary analyses also showed that LDE particles are, on average, spherical in shape. Overall, these findings provide relevant insights for the rational design of lipid mixtures in the preparation of nanoemulsions for drug delivery applications.
Extracellular vesicles (EV) can serve as nanocarriers for drug delivery, but their clinical translation is hampered by challenges in characterizing their dynamic interactions with target cells. Moreover, the dynamic reaction between EV and target cells remains unclear, especially at single-particle level. Recent techniques in advanced microscopy and artificial intelligence (AI) now present an opportunity to overcome this bottleneck. Therefore, the goal of this review is to evaluate how these technologies can be integrated to provide a dynamic, and label-free understanding of EV biology. In this review, we discuss the properties of the EV and commonly used probes for EV tracking. We also review the latest advances in microscopic techniques for visualizing EV uptake. Furthermore, we explore the potential of AI driven image analysis from these complex processes. By emphasizing the importance of these techniques, this review aims to provide a clear roadmap for researchers to leverage these new tools and ultimately provide new perspectives for EV-based therapeutics.
Background The persistent global burden of viral infections, compounded by the emergence of resistance and suboptimal therapeutic efficacy, underscores the urgency for innovative treatment strategies. Recent viral outbreaks such as COVID-19, Human metapneumovirus (HMPV), Zika, Ebola, Nipah, and various influenza viral strains have highlighted the limitations of conventional antivirals. This necessitates the need for targeted, adaptable, and innovative drug delivery platforms. In light of this, LNCs have emerged as versatile systems capable of enhancing drug stability, biodistribution, and cellular uptake. With their tunable architecture and ability to encapsulate diverse antiviral agents, these nanocarriers offer a promising avenue to overcome pharmacological barriers, improve therapeutic efficacy, and enable effective intervention against both established and emerging viral pathogens. Method To gather supporting evidence, publications were identified on Google Scholar, PubMed, and ScienceDirect with specific search terms such as “antivirals”, “drug loading”, “encapsulation efficiency”, “lipid nanocarriers”, “liposomes”, “solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs)”, “nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs)”, “cubosomes”, “virus”, “viral disease”, and “resistance”. We did not impose any restrictions on the publication date during the selection of papers. However, it is imperative to highlight that the initial reports containing specified keywords began publication in 1964; it is noteworthy that a majority of these publications were 2000 or beyond. Conclusion LNCs, including SLNs, NLCs, liposomes, and cubosomes, etc, demonstrated improved antiviral efficacy by enhancing drug stability, targeted delivery, and bioavailability. Several formulations showed superior pharmacokinetics and reduced toxicity compared to conventional therapies. Additionally, in vivo studies supported enhanced lymphatic uptake and therapeutic outcomes across multiple viral models. Despite notable progress, challenges in scalability, stability, and regulatory compliance limit their clinical translation. Hence, techniques such as microfluidics and other continuous manufacturing approaches improve reproducibility and process control. Moreover, artificial intelligence is revolutionizing LNC development by enabling rapid optimization, in silico prediction of pharmacokinetics, and real-time quality monitoring. Incorporating AI-enabled quality-by-design frameworks with state-of-the-art analytics may streamline regulatory approval. Moving forward, translating LNC technologies from bench to bedside will require scalable production methods, standardized characterization, and regulatory alignment.
Dihydroquercetin (DHQ) exhibited antimicrobial activity associated with its interaction with bacterial cell membranes. However, molecular-level mechanism has not been revealed. Therefore, this study investigated the potential interactions between DHQ and model membrane by constructing a Clavibacter michiganensis subsp. sepedonicus (Cms) membrane model. The optimization of preparation condition was sonicated 45 °C for 20 min determined by dynamic light scattering (DLS). The average particle size of the liposomes showed an average particle size of 162.43 ± 2.41 nm, with zeta potential of -26.77 ± 0.64 mV and PDI of 0.26 ± 0.01. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) showed that liposomes were uniformly spherical. Subsequently, further analysis was conducted on the effect of DHQ on the membrane. Through AFM observation, it was found that the morphology of liposomes was irregular, with significantly increased membrane adhesion, height and roughness, while the Young's modulus decreased. The absolute value of Zeta potential significantly decreased (P < 0.05), indicating that the membrane was more prone to aggregation. Phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance (31P NMR) showed that DHQ changed the microenvironment of the P atom in the phospholipid head. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations indicated that DHQ was more likely to act on the hydrophilic region of the 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (DPPG) membrane to form hydrogen bonds, and had a tendency to penetrate into the hydrophobic region of the membrane. These findings provided important molecular-level evidence for a deeper understanding of antibacterial effects of DHQ.
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are extensively used in healthcare, medicine, and environmental fields owing to their strong antiviral and antibacterial properties. Although these NPs interact with cellular biomembranes or vesicular lipid membranes, their mechanisms of interaction under physiological conditions using cell-mimetic giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) have been rarely investigated. In this study, we focused on the interaction of AgNPs with cell-sized GUVs and investigated deformation, membrane permeation, and change in membrane area under 0.3 - 5.0 μg/mL concentrations of AgNPs. The synthesized particles exhibited an average size of 58.1 nm and a zeta potential of -6.9 mV. The deformation of GUV and the fraction of deformation increase with the increase of AgNPs concentration. The encapsulating calcein of GUVs leaked out through the membranes while interacting the AgNPs, indicated the nano-sized pore formation in the membranes of vesicles. The leakage constant increased with the increase of NPs concentration, as well as the pore size. The membrane area of a GUV measured by micropipette technique exhibits a dynamic response: an initial rapid expansion, followed by a gradual contraction, and a subsequent slight increase over time. This provides insights into AgNPs-GUVs binding dynamics. These investigations help to understand the mechanism of interaction of AgNPs in the cell membranes which might be used in several biophysical and biomedical applications.
Liposomal stability is critical for effective drug delivery, yet its dependence on drug-membrane interactions remains incompletely understood. Here, we employ atomic-scale molecular dynamics simulations to investigate the structural stability of a commercial liposome (composed of DMPC/DMPG phospholipids) when loaded with two therapeutic agents: amphotericin B (an antifungal) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU, an anticancer drug). Our simulations reveal that amphotericin B maintains liposomal integrity, with minimal perturbations to membrane thickness, lipid order, and surface area. In contrast, 5-FU induces significant destabilization, including reduced membrane thickness, expanded lipid spacing, and disordered acyl chain packing-corroborated by alterations in deuterium order parameters, mass density profiles, and charge distributions. These findings demonstrate that while the liposome is an optimal carrier for amphotericin B, its composition requires modification for some anticancer drug delivery. The study provides mechanistic insights into drug-dependent liposomal stability, offering a framework for the rational design of tailored nanocarriers.
Researchers have explored and cultivated suitable membrane mimetics to preserve a physiological solvent condition for membrane protein functions. This involves emulating the properties of lipid bilayers, particularly within the hydrophobic core. Membrane mimetics exist in diverse forms, such as micelles, bicelles, liposomes, and nanodiscs. Polymers, such as styrene-maleic acid (SMA), have been found to offer a potentially suitable means to solubilize membrane proteins without resorting to detergents. It is widely recognized that various membrane mimetics yield distinct structural and dynamic configurations in membrane proteins. Styrene-maleic acid derivatives (SMADs) are of particular significance in this study; they are known for their ability to generate lipid nanoparticles. It has been hypothesized that using SMA derivatives with the same charge as the target membrane protein preserves the protein's structural and dynamic attributes compared to other bilayer membrane mimetics. This study explores the impact of different charges of SMA derivatives on two bacteriophage-encoded peptides explicitly focusing on their influence as charged peptides. Positively charged, neutral, and negatively charged SMA derivatives interactions with pinholin S21 and the phage-encoded cationic antimicrobial peptide gp28 lipid vesicles were assessed. These interactions were characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS) techniques and continuous wave electron paramagnetic resonance (CW-EPR) spectroscopy. From our DLS results, we observed a reduction in size compared to the vesicle control, which is consistent with the formation of SMADLPs (styrene maleic acid derivative lipid nanoparticles). The key outcome was in the identification of how various SMA derivatives affect the interaction of gp28 and pinholin membrane peptides, which is useful when trying to understand how the different SMA polymers can influence the behavior and stability of protein complexes. For gp28 peptide, CW-EPR spectral analysis indicates no line broadening in its profile, suggesting that binding interactions with SMA derivatives do not significantly disrupt the structural integrity or dynamic behavior of the gp28 peptide. SMA-Pos interaction with pinholin shows some minimal perturbation, confirming that it is not as compatible compared to SMA-Neut and SMA-Glu. This study will provide insights into the optimal conditions for studying membrane protein interactions, focusing on the structural dynamics of gp28 and pinholin in the presence of different SMA derivatives.
Background: Scalp sensitivity is an increasing global concern. While its pathophysiology remains unclear, evidence suggests its close association with skin barrier dysfunction caused by lipid secretion dysregulation. Objective: To identify potential biomarkers for the sensitive scalp through comprehensive analysis of physiological parameters (pH, TEWL, erythera) and scalp lipidomic profiling. Methods: A total of 100 females aged 18-25 years (50 with the sensitive scalp and 50 with the non-sensitive scalp) were recruited in Beijing area. Lipidomics analysis of the collected scalp lipid samples was conducted using UPLC-QTOF-MS to identify differential lipids. Additionally, physiological parameters of the scalp were measured using non-invasive methods. Results: The sensitive scalp group exhibited higher levels of TEWL, pH, erythera, and scalp imaging revealed increased redness in the sensitive scalp group. The lipidomics analysis identified 46 characteristic lipids. Furthermore, lipids of the [ST], [PR], [GP], and [FA] categories were significantly negatively correlated with physiological parameters, while lipids of the [SP] and [GL] categories displayed a significant positive correlation. Conclusion: This study reveals distinct differences in physical characteristics and surface lipid composition between sensitive and non-sensitive scalps, identifying specific lipids that play a critical role in scalp sensitivity.
Nervonic Acid (NA), as a critical component of neural myelin sheaths, maintains nerve cell structural integrity and function. Due to limited synthesis in humans, it is primarily obtained through plant extraction, chemical synthesis, or biosynthetic methods. Its bioactive properties and applications encompass: mitigating oxidative stress and improving cognitive function; balancing pro-/anti-inflammatory factors to alleviate inflammation in organs such as liver or colon while modulating gut microbiota; its level fluctuations being closely associated with psychiatric disorders and metabolic diseases, demonstrating biomarker potential for early diagnosis. Furthermore, nervonic acid exerts multi-dimensional protective effects on cardiovascular health and metabolic homeostasis, while serving as a functional ingredient in dietary supplements and infant formula. This review systematically elaborates on the three primary sources of nervonic acid, discusses its biological functions in neuroprotection, anti-inflammatory activity, and metabolic regulation, and explores its potential applications in biomarker development and functional foods. The review aims to provide an important theoretical foundation for future disease prevention strategies and the development of health-oriented products.
