This study examines whether School Resource Officers (SROs) contribute to the school-to-prison pipeline phenomenon through increased law enforcement referrals. Using nationally representative data from the 2017-18 School Survey on Crime and Safety (N = 2,762), we analyzed the relationship between SRO presence and incident reporting rates. Schools with SROs reported 16.36% points more incidents to law enforcement than those without, controlling for school characteristics. Associations varied by school level: minimal in elementary schools (3.43% points, non-significant), but more pronounced in middle schools (18.6% points, representing a 62% increase relative to the middle school average of 29.8%) and high schools (22.5% points, a 45% increase relative to the high school average of 49.5%). These findings suggest that SRO presence is associated with increased formalization of school discipline through law enforcement involvement, particularly in secondary schools, with implications for educational equity and youth criminalization.
Gender and sexual minority students experience higher levels of victimization in schools, making teacher intervention important. We examined how school climate, educator experiences (prior training, personal experience with harassment), and educator attitudes (homophobia, transgender knowledge) were associated with intention to intervene in cissexist and heterosexist victimization using two samples: pre-service teachers (n = 416) and in-service teachers (n = 931). For in-service teachers, higher transgender knowledge, lower homophobia, and personal harassment experience were associated with greater intervention intentions. Prior training was associated with greater transgender knowledge and greater intervention intentions. For the pre-service teachers, lower homophobia was associated with greater intervention intentions. In both samples, more school climate barriers were associated with greater transgender knowledge and lower homophobia. Results highlight the importance of ensuring teachers receive initial and continued education on diverse gender and sexual identities.
This study aims to identify factors that refine recommendations for reducing adolescent handgun carriage via machine learning. Data from 154,276 middle and high school students using the 2018, 2020, and 2022 Florida Youth Substance Abuse Survey was analyzed. The handgun carriage model achieved a Receiver Operator Characteristic Area Under the Curve (ROC AUC) score of 0.95, indicating 95% accuracy in distinguishing handgun carriers from non-carriers. The model achieved a Precision-Recall Area Under the Curve (PR AUC) score of 0.72, indicating both high precision (few false positives) and recall (few false negatives). The model predicting bringing a handgun to school performed well (ROC AUC = 0.97; PR AUC = 0.65). Approaches targeting youth substance use, increased parental monitoring, and secure firearm storage could reduce handgun carriage.
This study examines the relationship between teacher-perpetrated bullying victimization and deviance using a sample of undergraduate students from a Midwestern university in the USA (N = 858). Specifically, we apply social bonding and general strain theoretical frameworks to test if school social bonds and negative emotions mediate relationships between teacher-perpetrated bullying victimization and deviance. We find that students who experience teacher-perpetrated bullying victimization report higher levels of general deviance and cyberbullying perpetration. We also find that negative emotions fully mediate the relationship between teacher-perpetrated bullying victimization and general deviance, and partly mediate the relationship between teacher-perpetrated bullying victimization and cyberbullying perpetration. In contrast, school social bonds did not significantly mediate any of the relationships between teacher-perpetrated bullying victimization and deviance. These findings suggest that colleges should have policies in place that address teacher-perpetrated bullying and offer support services to students, particularly those involving mental health treatment.
This article draws on data from across a school community to consider the intersections between gender regimes and sexual harassment. We draw on data collected as part of a peer-led project within a secondary school that focused on educating year 9 (13-14 years old) boys on violence against women and girls and gender norms. In this article, we draw on the concept of gender regimes to analyze the ways the project both disrupted and reinforced gender regimes within the school. While we recognize that the project had some impact, reflections on male violence against women and girls and how everyday sexual harassment is a form of violence were not addressed, and gender regimes were therefore largely maintained.
Drawing on an ecosystemic framework, this study examines parental perceptions of rather than objective evaluations of school responses to bullying and cyberbullying. A mixed-methods survey of 868 UK-based parents revealed high levels of dissatisfaction with current school practices, characterized by perceptions of trivialization, inadequate consequences, slow communication, and recurring harm. Nearly half (46.6%) reported that their child had experienced school bullying, while 22.6% reported cyberbullying. These figures are consistent with UK-based empirical work. Although 42.3% of parents believed their school employed Restorative Justice (RJ), qualitative data indicated substantial confusion between authentic restorative practices and punitive measures mislabeled as restorative. Despite these inconsistencies, most parents (61.3%) expressed willingness to participate in an online RJ process, particularly those with higher educational attainment and prior bullying involvement. Thematic analysis highlighted key barriers and conditions necessary for effective digital implementation.
Social sanctioning for real or perceived sexual or sexualized behavior is commonly referred to as slut-shaming. While slut-shaming is common in school contexts, gaps remain in understanding both the individual and school-climate factors associated with slut-shaming and the consequences of slut-shaming for school outcomes like school attendance. Employing a sample of 1200 youth (ages 12-18; M = 14.69, SD = 1.87), this study linked slut-shaming victimization with (a) individual and school-level characteristics relating to bias-based victimization and safety for marginalized students, and (b) skipping school for safety concerns accounting for demographic factors, school context, and overlapping constructs (i.e. peer victimization, sexual harassment, and bias-based victimization). Findings suggest the need to address slut-shaming specifically in intervention and prevention approaches aimed at improving school climate.
Adolescent psychological distress remains a public health concern, especially among youth exposed to violence or stigma. Sexual minority youth (SMY) face disproportionate victimization, yet few studies examine how these factors interact. This study assessed their combined effects among Florida high school students using 2013-2021 Youth Risk Behavior Survey data (N = 22,033). A continuous distress score (0-5) was derived from five indicators. Survey-weighted linear regression showed school-based violence and sexual minority status were independently associated with higher distress (beta = 0.68 and beta = 0.81; p < .001), and their interaction (beta = 0.57, p < .001) indicated compounded burden for SMY exposed to violence. Our findings show these factors combine to worsen distress, and a continuous measure captured severity differences that binary outcomes miss. Results point to the need for affirming, trauma-informed school environments that address violence and stigma as drivers of youth mental health.
This study examines whether educator knowledge of individual student trauma history is associated with their interpretation of student acting out/externalizing behaviors or their response to those behaviors. Educators in one large Northeastern U.S. school district (N = 865) read a vignette describing a student demonstrating externalizing behaviors and were randomized to conditions that varied the student's trauma history, gender, and race. Educators' reported likelihood of referring the student for mental health services and using exclusionary discipline/punishment were not associated with student trauma history, gender, or race. Educators who reported greater confidence in responding to trauma were less likely to report exclusionary discipline/punishment of students. Awareness of student trauma history may be less important than educator confidence in supporting student challenges related to trauma.
This study investigates how junior high school students' perceptions of parents,' teachers,' and school administrators' responses to bullying are associated with their bystander behaviors. Using a nationally representative sample of 3441 students in Taiwan, multiple linear regression analyses were conducted. Results showed that parents' strong reactions, communication, and negotiation were positively associated with students' defender behaviors, whereas parental inaction was positively associated with outsider behaviors. Teachers' and school administrators' active interventions were positively related to defender behaviors. In contrast, passive responses from adults were generally associated with higher levels of outsider behavior. Among the three adult groups, teachers' active intervention had the highest standardized beta coefficient for defender behavior (beta = 0.11), indicating the strongest association. These findings highlight the significant role of adolescents' perceptions of adult responses in shaping their bystander behavior in bullying situations.
Behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) is a proactive approach to identifying, evaluating, and managing student threats of violence. BTAM teams typically include school administrators, mental health professionals, and school resource officers (SRO); however, the presence of SROs in schools is controversial. This multiple case study examined SRO roles on BTAM teams through inductive analysis of semi-structured interview responses of 5 SROs, 7 district safety leads, and 9 mental health professionals using the Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines. Key findings include (1) SROs had prior interest in working with youth or in schools and received relevant training before joining the BTAM team; (2) SROs worked collaboratively as part of the BTAM team throughout the process; and (3) SROs maintained boundaries between school discipline and law enforcement throughout the process. Findings may inform school policy and practice by clarifying how SROs are prepared for and serve on BTAM teams.
School victimization poses serious threats to the well-being of students. Scholars have considered that risk of school victimization is largely shaped by school factors but also may be influenced by the neighborhood in which schools are situated. Using the National Crime Victimization Study School Crime Supplement (NCVS-SCS) (N = 37,340), we investigate the mediation effects of student-perceived school factors on the neighborhood crime - school victimization relationship. We find that students' perceptions of neighborhood crime is positively associated with the odds of school victimization. Though students' perceptions of school factors mediated the association between neighborhood crime and victimization risk in schools, this mediation varied by type of victimization. We find that while there are school neighborhood influences on school victimization, school context is more salient in shaping school victimization.
We explored how Title IX Coordinators navigated their responsibilities amidst changing federal regulations, social movements, and institutional challenges. Using numeric and narrative survey data from Title IX Coordinators at U.S. institutions of higher education (N = 48), we identified themes related to the impact of policy changes, resource constraints, and shifting perceptions of Title IX offices. Data collection occurred between October 2023 and May 2024. The findings highlighted that although public awareness of sexual violence is increasing through social movements and political events, these efforts have also contributed to misconceptions and distrust of Title IX. Despite these challenges, respondents emphasized their commitment to supporting students, education, and prevention efforts. Understanding the perspectives of Title IX Coordinators on campuses is essential for shaping policies that strengthen efforts to address and prevent sexual violence and foster safer campuses.
The present research explores the occurrence of cyberbullying victimization among teachers by both students and their parents and assesses its consequences. The results indicate that 15.4% of teachers reported experiencing cyberbullying victimization by students and/or parents. The examination of the impact of cyberbullying on multiple outcomes shows a concerning pattern: victimized teachers are more likely to experience higher levels of work-related stress, diminished job effectiveness, and increased intent to leave their teaching career. There is a pressing need for school administrators to recognize the severity of the issue and suggestions for policies and intervention strategies are considered.
This paper examines how school architecture can mitigate mass shooting impacts while supporting learning and community engagement. Using CPTED principles, it presents a case study of Fruitport High School, Michigan, including an interview with the principal architect, to illustrate how layered security strategies can balance safety and usability. Based on these findings, the paper proposes a flexible design toolkit with adaptable strategies and technical specifications for diverse school contexts, enabling architects and planners to enhance safety and psychological well-being in educational environments.
Cyberhate is prevalent among secondary school students in many countries and has detrimental consequences for both individuals and societies. The current study examined whether students' social and emotional competencies and inclusive education are related to cyberhate in students cross-sectionally and longitudinally. The sample included 2,249 students (46.8% females; Mage = 13.1 years) and 667 of their teachers (55.9% females; Mage = 44.4 years) at wave 1. At wave 2, 1,668 students (49.1% females; Mage = 14.0 years) were followed up. In both the classroom- and school-level data analyses, students' cyberhate perpetration and victimization were cross-sectionally and longitudinally predicted by lower levels of social and emotional competencies. Teachers' positive attitudes toward inclusive education (measured at both the classroom and school levels) were cross-sectionally related to lower levels of cyberhate perpetration. It is recommended that schools design and implement interventions aimed at developing students' social and emotional competencies.
School administrators are key in decisions about arming school personnel, making their perceptions on this practice crucial. Superintendents (n = 180) and principals (n = 362) representing 30 states were surveyed to explore attitudes toward arming teachers and related policies. Results indicated the majority of superintendents and principals opposed teachers being armed in schools. The vast majority also felt that any teacher armed at school should have to pass a psychological exam, background check, and drug test, and keep their gun in a lockbox. In addition, factors such as the type of administrator, gun ownership, geographic setting, and political affiliation were significant predictors of attitudes toward armed teachers. These findings provide insights into the perceptions of school leaders who play an essential role in school safety.
