Purpose In many languages, spelling is subject to multiple influences. We tested whether adults adhere to two nonphonological hypotheses when spelling an understudied word type: names, specifically, surnames. Word type sensitivity holds that different rules may apply to different word types (e.g., noun < callus > vs. adjective < callous >). The distinctiveness hypothesis holds that people prefer spelling different words differently, even when they sound the same (e.g., < bite > vs. < byte >).Method We conducted a corpus study and two experimental studies of spelling production (ns = 54 and 46) and two of spelling choice (ns = 67 and 58) with English-speaking Australian undergraduates (overall mean age 26.5 years; 67% female).Results The corpus analysis showed final consonant letters are doubled much more often in surnames (< Kidd >) than non-names (< kid >). Mixed-model analyses also revealed a robust word type effect in behavioral spelling production and choice tasks: Participants doubled final consonant letters significantly more often for nonwords presented as surnames (< Mr Lodd >) than as common nouns (< the lod >). The corpus analysis also showed that the final letter is doubled more often in surnames that sound like an existing word (< Ms Codd >) than in surnames that do not (< Ms Grodd >). However, participants showed the opposite tendency, doubling letters significantly less often in surnames that did (< Ms Nodd >) than did not sound like words (< Ms Lodd >).Conclusion Word type influences adults' spelling. However, the results raise questions about people's use of distinctiveness and about the extent to which experienced spellers mirror written language statistics in their behavior.
Purpose: Despite widespread adoption of statewide literacy coaching initiatives, large-scale efforts have produced mixed results. Using an implementation science lens, this study examined Michigan's Read by Grade Three initiative to (1) assess how fidelity to evidence-based content, process, and dosage contribute to instructional growth, and (2) identify distinct implementation profiles. Methods: Participants included 16 coaches and 48 K-3 teachers. Data included 1,330 coaching logs, 16 interviews, and 171 hours of video. Analyses included hierarchical regression, cluster analysis, and thematic analysis. Results: Teachers demonstrated greater instructional growth when coaches had higher fidelity to evidence-based content and greater use of high-intensity processes. Four implementation profiles emerged, highlighting differences in content, processes, and dosage across contexts. These profiles were shaped by contextual conditions, such as teacher receptivity and coaching caseloads. Conclusions: Michigan's coaching initiative was characterized less by uniformity than by coaches' negotiation of fidelity and adaptation. Findings highlight the importance of creating adaptive, context-responsive coaching in large-scale reforms.
Dialogic talk supports multiple student outcomes, including reading comprehension and persuasive writing. However, few studies examine how specific student talk moves contribute to these outcomes. We examined the predictive relationship between student talk moves and post-discussion reading comprehension scores, utilizing the Low-Inference Discourse Observation (LIDO) tool to code classroom talk along a spectrum of dialogicity and measuring reading comprehension with the Global Integrated Scenario-Based Assessment (GISA). We examined data from 42 classrooms involving 369 unique students participating in a debate-focused curriculum in grades four through eight. The sample included predominantly Black students (n = 154), followed by white (n = 106), Latino/a (n = 89), and multiracial/other (n = 20). Female students represented 54.2% of the sample, and 86.4% were economically disadvantaged. Participants were English speakers in mainstream classrooms in the Northeastern United States. Using multilevel modeling and controlling for teacher talk moves, prior GISA scores, and demographic variables, we found a positive relationship between students' uptake (i.e. referencing one another's ideas) and reading comprehension scores. Conversely, minimal student responses were negatively associated with reading comprehension. Results from this study highlight the role of student-led dialogic interactions in supporting reading comprehension on a distal measure not directly aligned with the discussion content. These findings offer practical insights for educators seeking to foster more engaging and dialogic learning environments.
Purpose:Reading disabilities (RD) and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) frequently co-occur. We investigated whether RD+ADHD co-occurrence is associated with differences in reading outcomes, or in the brain basis of word reading, compared to RD alone. Method:In Study 1, 175 children (ages 7-13) completed literacy-related assessments and a reading task during fMRI. Groups included 50 RD, 53 RD+ADHD, and 72 students without disabilities (SWOD). Study 2 replicated analyses in an independent sample of over 2,100 children. Results:In Study 1, SWOD differed from the groups with RD on all reading measures. We found no evidence of significant differences behaviorally, or in functional brain activation, between the RD and RD+ADHD. Study 2 replicated the behavioral findings of Study 1; a fourth group of children with ADHD only had mean reading scores in the typical range. Conclusion:Together, these studies suggest that co-occurring RD+ADHD is not associated with meaningfully greater reading impairment than RD alone.
PurposeAs a logographic writing system, Chinese characters function as morphemes carrying semantic content. The present study investigated whether character position encoding in Chinese is modulated by morpheme-level semantic information.MethodTwo experiments were carried out using an unprimed lexical decision task (Experiment 1, N=70; mean age 21.8; 58.6% female) and sentence reading with eye-tracking (Experiment 2, N=70, mean age 22.7; 64.3% female). In both experiments, we adopted the paradigm for studying position encoding - the transposed-character effect (TC effect). Critically, we manipulated the semantic relatedness between the two constituent characters of disyllabic words and tested whether it modulates the TC effect.ResultsResults showed a consistent TC effect. But neither experiment showed any differences in the TC effect between semantically related and unrelated morpheme pairs, showing that morpheme-level semantic relatedness does not modulate transposition effects.ConclusionThe results provide no evidence that morpheme-level semantic relatedness modulates TC effect in Chinese.
Purpose: This study compared two methods of irregular word instruction: mispronunciation correction (MPC) and heart-words, with an active control condition involving look-and-say reading homework. Method: Sixty Year 1 children (53.30% female, 11.67% of whom spoke English as an additional language) completed four active control sessions learning 14 irregular words, followed by four experimental sessions learning a different set of 14 words using either MPC or heart-word training. Post-testing assessed reading and spelling accuracy for trained items. Results: Both MPC and heart-word instruction produced significantly greater improvements in reading and spelling than the active control condition. No significant differences emerged between the two experimental methods in overall learning outcomes; however, children achieved equivalent gains more quickly in the MPC condition. Conclusion: The findings provide the first empirical evaluation of the heart-word method and support previous research suggesting that instruction involving active orthographic processing is effective for irregular word learning. Practical and theoretical implications are discussed.
PurposeA primary responsibility of schools is to teach writing. In this Introduction to a special issue of the Scientific Studies of Reading we introduce five studies, two of which examine how writing is taught and three that test the effectiveness of specific writing interventions.MethodTo contextualize the five studies, we consider how researchers have studied the teaching of writing in schools, along with a brief history of efforts to test the effectiveness of writing interventions and what is currently known about evidence-based writing practices.ResultsWriting instruction in most, but not all, classrooms is inadequate, even though there is a considerable amount of scientific evidence about writing practices that are effective.ConclusionThe studies included in this special issue make important contributions to furthering our current understanding and teaching of writing, particularly for young developing writers, including students who find learning to write challenging.
Purpose Our study conceptually replicated and extended prior investigations of the longitudinal stability of hybrid models of dyslexia by using a measure of word reading fluency alongside measures of nonsense word fluency and oral reading fluency. Method Drawing from a nationally representative sample of students, we estimated the one-year stability of 11 dyslexia classification indices for 492 Grade 1 students who were 47.4% female, 49.8% White, 25.0% Latinx, 12.0% Black or African American, and 85.4% of whom were classified as non-English learners. The classifications defined dyslexia as low reading performance, unexpected low reading performance, a dual discrepancy, or a hybrid model of dyslexia. For each model, incidence rates and stability estimates were obtained for cut points at the 25th, 15th, and 5th percentiles. Results We replicated findings that hybrid models tend to exhibit longitudinal stability, and the degree of stability reflects assumptions about how the data are distributed. Specifically, our estimates were sensitive to the cut points examined and assumptions about a residualized metric of vocabulary. Regardless of our assumptions, we found that low achievement and dual discrepancy indices can exhibit comparable stability to hybrid models in the presence of weak slope-intercept correlations. Conclusion Our results affirm that hybrid models of dyslexia can exhibit longitudinal stability. However, they add nuance by clarifying that the relative stability of hybrid models depends on the measures and sample in question. Further, multi-measure models are simultaneously more exposed to measurement error and more resilient to it than other models, resulting in meaningful tradeoffs.
PurposeGiven the limited longitudinal research on Arabic reading development, this study examined cognitive and linguistic predictors of Arabic word reading using two year longitudinal data from kindergarten to grade 2.Method142 Arabic speaking Palestinian children (Mean age = 67 months, SD = 4.0 months) were assessed in kindergarten on letter knowledge, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), morphological awareness, and working memory. At the end of grade 2, word reading was measured through word reading efficiency, syllable reading efficiency, and pseudoword reading accuracy.ResultsStructural equation modeling revealed that the letter knowledge-RAN latent variable strongly predicted grade 2 word reading. Working memory was indirectly related to later reading through this latent variable, which fully mediated their relationship. Phonological and morphological awareness were not independently related to word reading.ConclusionFindings highlight the central role of letter knowledge and RAN, and the indirect contribution of working memory in Arabic word reading development. Results are discussed in relation to theoretical models.
PurposeResearch has highlighted the role of children's oral language skills in the production of written text. Most studies have been cross-sectional, with upper elementary or kindergarten samples. The present study investigated (a) the components of written text production in the first years of school entry; and (b) whether early oral language skills were related to writing quality using a longitudinal design and considering the concurrent role of vocabulary, oral narrative, reading comprehension and transcription skills.MethodMonolingual English-speaking children (N = 157; 59% female) were first assessed in their first two years of compulsory education in England (Mage months = 63.66, SD = 7.14) on a measure of core oral language (receptive and expressive vocabulary and grammar). A school year later, measures of oral narrative skills, reading comprehension, spelling, handwriting fluency and writing were collected. Measures of writing productivity, accuracy, and quality were obtained.ResultsThree dimensions were identified in the writing samples: productivity, spelling, and quality. Spelling ability, vocabulary, and core oral language predicted productivity, while only spelling ability and handwriting fluency predicted spelling in written compositions. GLM mediation analysis revealed that a longitudinal measure of core oral language directly (and indirectly through reading comprehension) related to later writing quality.ConclusionThe findings demonstrate that early written compositions can be evaluated for productivity, spelling and quality and confirm the importance of early oral language skills in predicting later writing productivity and quality. Uniquely, reading comprehension was found to have a direct and mediating effect on writing quality.
PurposeEmpirical support for the sluggish attentional shifting theory of developmental dyslexia (DD) remains debated. Inconsistent findings have been attributed to divergent paradigms for assessing attentional orienting, variability in participant ages, and cross-linguistic differences in script-processing demands. Therefore, the present study systematically investigated exogenous and endogenous attentional orienting in Chinese children with dyslexia across high and low grades of primary schools.MethodsA total of Eighty-eight Mandarin-speaking children (46% female, Mage = 9.38) participated, including 44 children with DD and 44 age-matched typically developing (TD) children. Participants were divided into two grade-based groups: a low-grade group (Grades 2-3, n = 46, DD/TD = 23/23, 48% female, Mage = 8.73) and a high-grade group (Grades 4-5, n = 42, DD/TD = 21/21, 43% female, Mage = 10.09). All children completed reading-related assessments and exogenous/endogenous spatial cueing tasks.ResultsIn the low-grade group, children with dyslexia showed longer reaction times and a smaller right-hemifield cueing effect in the exogenous attention task compared with their TD peers, indicating deficits in both attentional orienting and right-hemifield inhibition, which linked to poor sentence reading and orthographic awareness. These exogenous orienting deficits were attenuated in the high-grade group. Moreover, endogenous attentional orienting was generally intact in the current cohort of children with dyslexia and was associated with sentence-reading performance specifically in the high grades.ConclusionThese results indicate that the exogenous attentional orienting deficit may be an early marker for DD identification while preserved endogenous attention orienting may compensate in children with dyslexia from high grades. The findings support the sluggish attentional shift theory from a developmental aspect and emphasize the importance of considering language-specific and age-related factors in characterizing dyslexia.
Purpose: Primary purpose of this study was to extend the research on the SRSD model by examining its efficacy in a randomized controlled trial within a Tier-2 framework for small groups of students at-risk for writing difficulties. Methods: 243 sixth grade at-risk writers were randomized into SRSD instruction versus control group. The sample comprised 67.5% female, 40% White, 26% Black, 23% Hispanic, and 11% other ethnicity. Students in the SRSD group (n = 160) met in small groups for 24 30-minute sessions across a 12-week period. The control group (n = 83) met for a similar length of time and engaged in writing activities, but received no explicit instruction. Outcome measures included Wechsler Individualized Achievement Test III (WIAT-III), Test of Written Language-Fourth Edition (TOWL-4), and Number of Essay Parts (NOEP). Based on the direct and indirect effects of writing model, moderators included reading, language, executive functions (EF), writing efficacy and attitudes, and social-behavior. Carryover effects of SRSD were examined 6-months post-instruction. Results: Using an intent-to-treat framework, results showed differential change over time as a function of SRSD for WIAT-III Theme Development and Text Organization (p < .05; d = .63) and Number of Essay Parts (p < .0001; d = 1.33). EF served as a significant moderator, although it did not survive correction. No carryover effects were noted 6-month post-instruction. Conclusions: These findings extend the SRSD instructional model into a Tier-2 small group setting, with at-risk writers responding positively. EF also was identified as a potential moderator that can influence writing outcomes for middle school students at-risk for writing difficulties.
PurposeWe conducted a multi-site randomized controlled trial (RCT) to examine the efficacy of an instructional program, peer assisted writing strategies (PAWS), to improve writing skills in KG students relative to the business as usual (BAU) control condition.MethodTwenty-one KG teachers and 400 English-speaking students (198 females; 28.9% White, 34.2% Asian, 14.7% Black) were randomly assigned to PAWS or BAU condition within schools. Average class size was 20 students, with a mean age of 65.73 months. Teachers in the PAWS condition were trained to deliver the instruction three times/week over 26 weeks, while BAU teachers were provided training on general writing strategies. Writing and reading measures were collected from all students before and after the instruction.ResultsLinear mixed effect models were used to test the causal impact of the instructional outcomes- handwriting, spelling, sentence, and essay writing. Models revealed a significant impact of PAWS on all writing measures with varying effect sizes (g = 0.09to 0.36). Tests of moderation yielded several important findings. PAWS was beneficial in improving spelling for English Language Learners (g = 0.28; 0.34). Female students in PAWS outperformed BAU female students on all spelling measures. White students in PAWS outperformed their BAU counterparts on essay productivity (g = 0.32), and students with low initial letter naming fluency scores in PAWS outperformed those in the BAU condition (g = 0.51) on essay quality.ConclusionPAWS had a positive impact on students' writing outcomes. Implications of the results and directions for future research are discussed.
PurposeWriting motivation is closely linked to writing performance, yet both decline in early adolescence. Understanding heterogeneity in writing motivation and its relationship to performance is critical. This study used a person-centered, mixed methods approach to identify profiles of writing motivation among middle school students.MethodsPhase 1 used latent profile analysis with 2,534 students (50% female; 31.49% sixth grade; 44.99% White non-Hispanic). Phase 2 involved semi-structured interviews with 27 students representing all profiles, analyzed using thematic analysis. Phase 3 integrated quantitative and qualitative findings into meta-inferences.ResultsFour profiles were identified. Personal interest writers, motivated by curiosity and perceived personal benefit. Self-expression writers, sought emotional expression and connection with readers. Performance writers, motivated by grades and competition. Non-specific writers, showed high motivation but no dominant motivational driver.ConclusionStudents valued diverse motives for writing, resulting in distinct motivational profiles that differed in demographic composition and writing performance.
PurposeThis study evaluates the impact of Peer Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS-UK) in developing pupils' reading attainment, reading skills (comprehension and fluency) and affective factors (reading self-efficacy and motivation).MethodAll Year 5 pupils (9-10 years old, N = 4840, 49% female and 51% male) in 114 schools in England, took part in a two-armed, randomized controlled efficacy trial randomizing schools. The final analyzed sample included 53 treatment schools (N = 1907, 51% female and 49% male) and 50 business-as-usual control schools (N = 1721, 49% female and 51% male). In treatment schools, class-teachers were asked to deliver PALS-UK three times per week for 20 weeks.ResultsPupils in treatment schools demonstrated higher curriculum-aligned reading attainment than pupils in business-as-usual control schools. A moderate effect size was found for this primary outcome. Exploratory subgroup analyses suggested that no groups were disadvantaged by treatment. In addition, analyses of secondary outcomes showed significant positive treatment effects for reading comprehension and reading fluency/rate - a measure based on speed/accuracy of reading connected text. The treatment effect was not significant for multidimensional fluency (measuring qualitative differences in expressive reading), reading self-efficacy or motivation to read.ConclusionThis study is the most rigorous evidence to date that PALS-UK is effective in improving reading outcomes. It provides strong evidence in support of the use of this structured approach to paired reading. We conclude that the approach works, when implemented with fidelity, because it supports pupils to practice reading aloud and scaffolds use of reading comprehension strategies, which improve reading outcomes.
PurposeAlthough the concepts of effort and effortlessness have been around since the dawn of modern psychology, their definition and operationalization in the reading field has been neglected. We previously reported a pupillometric investigation in which we initially observed a greater degree of cognitive effort for reading unfamiliar letter strings compared to familiar words, in both oral and silent modes among Hebrew-speaking skilled adults and developing readers. The present study aimed to provide an initial step toward establishing universals and specifics regarding the issue of cognitive effort in word reading by focusing on a typical European alphabetic writing system - Dutch.MethodTwenty-four Dutch-speaking university students participated in two pupillometric experiments comparing cognitive effort in reading familiar and unfamiliar letter strings (words and pseudowords). Experiment 1 included monosyllabic stimuli varying from 3 to 5 letters: Experiment 2 contained bisyllabic stimuli varying from 6 to 8 letters.ResultsIn both experiments, readers showed more effort when reading unfamiliar (pseudo)words. Length effects and familiarity-by-length interactions also suggested greater reliance on serial, letter-by-letter processing. Bayesian analysis revealed temporal differences between the effects, such that the familiarity effect preceded the length effect.ConclusionsThe findings suggest that familiarity-dependent differences in cognitive effort in word reading may be a universal property across writing systems. However, even short familiar words required some degree of cognitive effort suggesting that, in line with prior pupillometric studies, the use of terms such as "effortless" and "effortlessness" in current definitions of word reading fluency are inaccurate. In addition, pupillometry, unlike reaction times, appears to capture the time course over which effects occur.
PurposeThis article introduces a Special Issue on writing.MethodWe examine why writing is important.ResultsWe specify seven ways that writing is used and how writing supports learning to read.ConclusionsThe four investigations included in the Special Issue are presented.
