Social-emotional learning (SEL) has become a central component of education, supported by a robust evidence base demonstrating its positive effects. Despite these advances, the field has reached a critical juncture in which demonstrating the overall efficacy of SEL interventions is no longer sufficient for advancing research and practice. Different kinds of research are needed. This shift is not intended to diminish the substantial evidence supporting the efficacy of SEL interventions, but rather to build on this foundation by advancing a more precise and explanatory science of how these interventions operate in practice. This article introduces a curated special topic section in School Psychology Review, highlighting nuanced research on SEL. The 10 featured articles in this issue are organized across three complementary areas: identifying malleable processes that can be targeted within SEL interventions, examining variability in SEL intervention effects, and centering culture in the design, implementation, and evaluation of SEL programming. Collectively, these studies move the field toward a more refined understanding of how SEL interventions function in practice. Implications for school psychology practice and future research are discussed.Impact StatementThis special topic section advances social-emotional learning (SEL) by moving beyond efficacy to examine how, for whom, and under what conditions SEL works. By focusing on mechanisms of change, variability in effects, and cultural context, these articles promote a more precise, equitable, and practice-relevant approach to SEL in school psychology.
The widespread adoption of behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) in U.S. schools has created a new professional responsibility for school psychologists. This article examines how the school psychologist's role on multidisciplinary BTAM teams is consistent with relevant NASP Practice Model Domains and Position Statements. We build upon this NASP guidance to explain how school psychologists can contribute to both the assessment and intervention process, using four case examples of increasing complexity. We identify common challenges school psychologists face within the BTAM process and their role in safeguarding student rights and promoting fairness and equity in school discipline. We conclude that school psychologists can help ensure that BTAM is conducted with high fidelity as a practice that fosters safer and more supportive schools.
This study used a 1-year longitudinal research design to uncover teacher well-being profiles and examine how job and personal resources, including teaching efficacy, staff relations, and psychological suzhi (i.e., a combined set of psychological strengths), were associated with teacher well-being trajectories. Participants (n = 733) were included in the analysis to estimate well-being profiles of teachers recruited in 2018 from schools in China. Approximately 80% of teachers experienced persistent suboptimal occupational well-being. Among teachers who participated in all three waves of data collection (n = 392), those with higher scores in teaching efficacy and psychological suzhi were more likely to belong to the flourishing profile (high satisfaction and low distress) over time. Personal and job resources moderated teachers' transitions across profiles. Particularly, teachers in the languishing profile (low satisfaction and high distress) with higher teaching efficacy and staff relations tended to show improved well-being in later waves. Those with higher psychological suzhi were more likely to move from the moderate profile to the flourishing profile. The findings inform targeted interventions delivered by school psychologists or administrators for teachers with distinctive well-being profiles. Impact Statement This study highlights how personal and job resources influence teacher well-being in different ways. Perceived efficacy in teaching is essential to prevent teachers from languishing and to promote resilience. Teachers' psychological strengths help sustain long-term occupational well-being.
Black girls in alternative school settings face distinct challenges shaped by the intersection of race, gender, and institutional discipline norms. This qualitative study explores the lived experiences of Black girls, ages 13 to 16, who participated in the Black Girl Futures (BGF) Girl Talk! program at an alternative school in the southern United States. Using a youth participatory action research (YPAR) framework, the study positions the girls as coresearchers and centers their perspectives through reflective journaling, interviews, and observations. Findings illustrate how exclusionary discipline, biased adult-student relationships, and limited access to supportive programming shape their educational experiences and emotional well-being. Coresearchers identified a need for culturally affirming spaces and interventions that support identity development, voice, and healing. Their narratives challenge deficit-based portrayals and emphasize the value of school environments that allow them to be seen and supported as whole people. This study calls for greater use of participatory methods in school psychology and encourages critical reflection from clinicians and researchers working with Black girls and other marginalized youth in educational settings to ensure practices are emotionally safe, identity-affirming, and trauma-informed.
Sharing can be challenging for preschool students. A multiple baseline design across four groups of preschool students was used to evaluate the effects of a modified Tootling intervention on sharing and asking-to-share behaviors. Students worked independently in groups of three to five to complete color-by-number worksheets, each receiving only half the colors needed. The others in the group had the remaining colors. During this activity, following a social skills training session, a Tootling intervention was applied with interdependent group rewards delivered contingent on the number of peer reports of students' sharing and asking-to-share behaviors meeting an unknown, randomly selected criterion. Students reported when someone in their group shared or asked to share by pressing an electronic applause button. Visual and statistical analyses provided three demonstrations of a treatment effect on sharing behaviors and increased baseline trends in the fourth group. The data for asking-to-share behaviors was less clear. The discussion focuses on the limitations of the current study and on future research designed to increase prosocial behavior performance and enhance social skills development in preschool children.
School psychology has a history of perpetuating social and cultural oppression through problematic research practices. To challenge these practices, school psychology editorial board members must be prepared to competently evaluate scholarship that advances multiculturalism and social justice. This study examined school psychology board members' interests and expertise regarding multicultural and social justice (M/SJ) topics, epistemologies, and methodologies. We conducted a content analysis of publicly available research profiles and first-author publication titles for 341 board members across three journals: Journal of School Psychology, School Psychology, and School Psychology Review. Nearly half (45.5%) of members had an interest in M/SJ topics (as evidenced by either their profiles or publications), whereas only 9.7% indicated an interest in M/SJ epistemologies or methodologies. Across all board members, the most commonly studied minoritized groups were people with disabilities (represented in profiles for 39.3% of members and publications for 24.3% of members) followed by racial and ethnic minoritized people (represented in profiles for 18.5% of members and publications for 20.8% of members). Several minoritized populations (e.g., religious minoritized groups) were studied by fewer than 5% of members. We discuss implications for diversifying the expertise of school psychology board members, particularly in regard to multiculturalism and social justice.Impact StatementA content analysis of school psychology editorial board members' online research profiles and first-author publications indicated that nearly half of members had an interest in multicultural or social justice (M/SJ) research topics; however, fewer than 10% of members indicated interests in M/SJ research methods. Several minoritized populations (e.g., religious minoritized groups) were underrepresented in board members' research interests and publications. Findings call for the continued diversification of school psychology editorial board members' interests and expertise.
Systemic change is needed to support safe and joyful school climates. This paper begins by describing a spectrum of change-making approaches (activism, advocacy, consultation, and collaboration), grounded in the history of these approaches in the broader field of psychology, as well as within the field of school psychology specifically. The authors share their experiences as school psychology trainees with using established advocacy and organizational consultation models to engage with local school boards and enact change for Black and LGBTQ+ students at the school district level. We synthesize the similarities and differences in our experiences using these two approaches to clarify how practicing school psychologists can facilitate change aligned with social justice. Finally, we discuss how the field can promote social justice and provide tangible suggestions for improving training opportunities for school-based systemic change.Impact StatementThis paper provides school psychologists with real-world examples of advocacy and organizational consultation with district administration and school boards. It also provides the school psychology field with tangible suggestions for how to more intentionally engage in systemic change efforts broadly.
Using a cross-sectional survey design, this study examined the experiences of 137 school psychologists who were members of the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) practicing across three distinct legislative contexts involving anti-LGBTQ+ curriculum laws. Quantitative analyses compared practitioners' experiences of ethical conflict, perceptions of school climate, and advocacy-related concerns across legislative environments, and open-ended responses were reviewed to provide context for interpretation of the findings. Practitioners in settings where anti-LGBTQ+ laws were more visible and actively enforced reported greater concern about the professional consequences of advocacy and the anticipated reactions of others. Reported ethical tensions most often involved student welfare, student autonomy, and efforts to cultivate inclusive school climates. Findings suggest that stigmatizing policy environments may constrain school psychologists' advocacy and highlight the importance of socially just practice in supporting LGBTQ+ students. Recommendations for advocacy on behalf of LGBTQ+ students are offered, including strategies such as cultivating allies within schools and communities, developing effective and persuasive communication skills, and serving as informational resources to administrators and parents.
Despite increasing national attention to school safety, few studies have examined whether state-level legislation is associated with students' safety experiences or whether associations vary across demographic groups. This study analyzed 2023 Youth Risk Behavior Survey data from 62,065 students across 17 states to assess whether legislative comprehensiveness predicted skipping school due to feeling unsafe and being threatened with a weapon. Hierarchical multilevel models tested main effects and demographic interactions. Results revealed no significant main effects, but significant interactions indicating differential associations by student characteristics. Male-identifying and American Indian/Alaska Native-identifying students in states with more comprehensive legislation showed increased odds of skipping school, while female-identifying and Black-identifying students showed protective associations. State-level factors accounted for less than 3% of variance. Findings suggest comprehensive legislation is not uniformly beneficial and may differentially affect students based on their identities, emphasizing the need for equity-centered policy design and implementation.Impact StatementState school safety laws may not equally protect all students. This study found that more comprehensive state safety legislation was associated with better outcomes for some students but with worse outcomes for others depending on their demographic characteristics, highlighting critical inequities in how policy translates to student experiences. School psychologists and policymakers must work together to design and advocate for safety legislation that is evidence-based, equitable, and responsive to the diverse needs of all students.
While schools are generally safe spaces, they must implement a range of crisis prevention strategies to be prepared for numerous types of crises. School psychologists are uniquely positioned to implement crisis prevention strategies in schools; however, the literature regarding their roles in this domain is lacking and outdated. This study provides updated information regarding the role of school psychologists in crisis prevention and explores how involvement in these practices differ by school location. A sample of 252 practicing school psychologists from across the United States participated in an online survey. Results revealed that school psychologists were most involved with crisis prevention strategies related to social-emotional learning, using prevention curricula, and behavioral interventions with students. School psychologists' role was found to differ significantly by location, with those working in schools in urban areas being the most involved with crisis prevention strategies broadly.Impact StatementAn important part of school psychologists' role is crisis prevention. School psychologists are most likely to be involved in prevention, social emotional learning, and behavioral interventions. School psychologists working in urban areas are more likely to be involved in crisis prevention activities than those working in other areas.
Black male practitioners and faculty are a rarity in the field of school psychology. The National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC) is comprised of Black Greek letter organizations that have been a source of nurturing for Black professionals. Thus, the purpose of this project was to gain a better understanding of NPHC fraternity members views of school psychology. Twelve Black men from three universities participated in this qualitative study. Findings indicated that participants had a desire to enter a helping profession to help the Black community; however, a majority of men had a lack of knowledge about the field of school psychology. Participants were open to considering a career in school psychology if provided with more information earlier in life. However, Black men indicated that the field's association with IQ tests and eugenics was a barrier. Implications are discussed regarding the recruitment of Black men in the field of school psychology.Impact StatementBlack men are significantly underrepresented in the field of school psychology. This research, using a sample of Black male undergraduates from Black Greek letter organizations, indicates a potential pathway to recruit more Black psychologists if they are provided with more information about the profession earlier in life. For this to occur, the field must also move beyond simple information sharing to focusing on how it is perceived to others due to its oppressive history.
Tiered systems of support require educators to closely monitor student growth in academic skills and adapt interventions when sufficient progress is not made. Curriculum-based measures of oral reading (CBM-R) are the most common progress monitoring assessments to monitor response to reading intervention. Computer adaptive tests (CATs) are also emerging as another option, particularly amongst older students. CBM-R and CAT progress monitoring data were simulated based upon outcomes collected under naturalistic conditions from a sample of grade six students to explore the consistency and accuracy of recommendations from the trend line decision rule. Both measures were developed and distributed by Renaissance Learning. Results suggest that agreement to change or maintain an intervention were equal to chance levels for CATs and CBM-R even when data were collected an entire school year. More than five months of data were required to yield sufficiently accurate recommendations to maintain or change interventions for low-stakes decisions for both assessments. CAT performed marginally better than CBM-R.Impact StatementEducators often must choose between computer-adaptive tests (CATs) or curriculum-based measures (CBMs) to evaluate response to reading instruction for middle school students. Results suggest that recommendations from the trend line decision rule for concurrently collected CBM and CAT data agree at chance levels. Further, the accuracy of recommendations from both assessments were often poor, even when data were collected for nearly an entire school year. Researchers need to identify alternate methods to efficiently evaluate student response to intervention.
Teacher instructional and behavioral management practices, including culturally responsive practices, have been shown to be associated with positive student outcomes. We collected classroom videos of 134 elementary school teachers in a rural school district and examined their practice rates (opportunities to respond [OTRs], praise, and corrections) disaggregated by perceived student race (Black and non-Black). We also analyzed how practice rates for each group were associated with the use of office discipline referrals (ODRs) and racial disparities in ODRs. We found teachers provided significantly lower rates of OTRs, praise, and corrections to Black students compared to their non-Black peers. We also found that for every group, corrections alone were linked to higher referral rates. No instructional practices were associated with racial disparities in ODRs. We discuss findings and implications of using disaggregated OTRs, praise, and behavioral corrections data as a systemic indicator of the presence of culturally responsive practices (CRPs).Impact StatementTeachers in rural elementary schools engaged Black students in significantly fewer OTRs, praise, and corrections than their non-Black peers, signaling missed opportunities for engagement and affirmation. Each additional correction predicted higher odds of ODRs for all students, and classrooms with more Black students showed disproportionately higher ODRs for this group. Findings highlight the urgent need to support intentional implementation of CRPs with disaggregated data to foster engagement and affirming classrooms.
Cognitive assessment represents a central responsibility of school psychologists in K-12 settings and plays a critical role in determining special education eligibility. Although the American Psychological Association (APA) identifies cultural competence as a core professional expectation, limited research has examined how explicitly this training is embedded within cognitive assessment coursework. This study conducted a secondary analysis of 90 syllabi from APA- and NASP-accredited programs amid the rise of antidiversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) legislation in states such as Ohio, North Carolina, and Texas, and the APA Commission on Accreditation's temporary suspension of diversity standards. Findings revealed that most syllabi incorporated diversity learning objectives (91%), culturally focused readings (78%), and content on cultural responsiveness (87%). Additionally, a substantial proportion addressed test bias (74%) and test fairness (67%). Results underscore the profession's commitment to multicultural competence and highlight the need to document baseline DEI integration amid shifting policy contexts.Impact StatementThis paper highlights the importance of integrating diversity and cultural responsiveness within cognitive assessment training in school psychology programs. Findings reveal that most APA and NASP accredited programs, prior to the implementation of recent anti-DEI legislation, included diversity content through learning objectives, culturally focused readings, and discussion of test bias and fairness. These results emphasize the need to maintain DEI focused instruction to ensure culturally competent assessment practices.
As the national movement toward universal preschool gains momentum, trauma-informed practices (TIP) are increasingly recognized as foundational for promoting equitable and developmentally responsive early education. Despite this growing emphasis, research remains limited in examining TIP within transitional kindergarten settings, particularly in California's pioneering Universal Transitional Kindergarten (UTK). Additionally, the absence of a cohesive TIP framework complicates effective implementation and highlights the need to understand teachers' experiences. To address these gaps, we conducted reflexive thematic analysis of semistructured interviews with 21 UTK teachers across California to explore their understanding of TIP and experiences as early implementers. Two major themes emerged: (a) current TIP strategies-including demonstrating empathy, fostering inclusive and emotionally safe classroom environments, building robust family-school partnerships, and adopting caregiver roles beyond academics; and (b) critical supports necessary for effective TIP implementation, notably structured interdisciplinary collaboration with school psychologists and social workers, targeted professional development, and resources addressing secondary traumatic stress among educators. Findings highlight significant gaps between existing TIP implementation and essential systemic support. This study provides crucial insights to inform UTK policy, refine TIP frameworks, and delineate pivotal roles school psychologists play in fostering sustainable trauma-informed educational environments, thereby enhancing developmental outcomes and school readiness for young children.Impact StatementThis study reveals that teachers in UTK programs actively use trauma-informed practices, such as empathy and family engagement and fostering family engagement, to support young children's emotional needs. However, findings highlight critical gaps, emphasizing the urgent need for structured collaboration with school psychologists and targeted professional development to enhance teacher well-being and promote effective trauma-informed early childhood education. By illuminating teachers' lived experiences and practical challenges, our findings provide empirical insights essential for developing a cohesive TIP framework.
Despite robust literature that student voice positively impacts youth development and equitable school climates, school psychology has yet to integrate student voice in research and practice. Guided by a critical school psychology (CSP) framework, this study examines how high school students seek to be change agents. We present findings from a qualitative study of 23 high school students' experiences with student advisory councils at 4 schools in a Midwestern city. Findings illustrate how all youth seek to have their voices heard through themes of Youth-Driven Knowledge Creation, Collaboration and Transformation, Awareness and Advocacy, and Being Heard. Students also need authentic adult collaboration, autonomy in issue selection, and transparent pathways to participation. Guided by CSP's dimensions of new knowledge and new spaces, results demonstrate how partnering with youth can transform school psychology into a site of social justice with implications for practice and research.
This qualitative study examined the development of culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy (CRTSE) among seven teachers with demonstrated success serving historically marginalized racial, ethnic, and linguistic groups. Using a phenomenological approach, semi-structured interviews explored how participants' beliefs, identities, and practices evolved through personal experiences, teacher education, professional development, and relationships with students and families. Data were analyzed with inductive and deductive coding. Findings highlight CRTSE as a dynamic construct characterized by a shift from teacher-directed to student-centered instruction, grounded in mutual respect, critical reflection, and deep valuing of students' lived experiences. Teachers reported structural barriers to implementing culturally responsive practices yet persisted through collaboration and self-awareness. Implications emphasize the need for teacher preparation, professional learning, and consultation with school psychologists to support CRTSE through ongoing, equity-focused strategies.Impact StatementThis study explores how teachers develop culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy (CRTSE) through reflection, relationships, and persistence in the face of systemic barriers. Although centered on teacher development, the findings have direct implications for school psychology practice by identifying opportunities for interdisciplinary consultation, equity-oriented professional learning, and systems-level support that promotes culturally affirming practices in schools.
While bystanders' role in bullying has been well-documented, the long-term effects of victimization on bystander behaviors have remained understudied. This study examined how bullying victimization influenced students' bystander behaviors over a one-year period, with a focus on fear of missing out (FoMO) related to uncertainty in social information and grit. Using three waves of data collected over one year from 670 Chinese vocational students (M-age = 16.14; 33.7% boys), results indicated that students who experienced early bullying victimization were less likely to defend peers and more likely to become outsiders or support the bullies one year later. These effects were partly explained by increased FoMO on social information six months after baseline. Conversely, FoMO related to general situational awareness did not play a significant role. Furthermore, grit moderated how social information FoMO influenced students' bullying bystander responses. Specifically, when students experienced higher levels of social information FoMO, those with higher grit showed stronger negative bystander behaviors, while students with lower grit were less impacted by social information FoMO. The findings indicate that bullying prevention and intervention should address uncertainty in social contexts and enhance adaptive coping strategies among students.
The work of the Leadership Pillar of the 2023-2024 School Psychology Futures Conference included structured conversations, resource and content development, examination and reflection, and calls to action. By briefly discussing the history of leadership in school psychology and analyzing participants' responses, the authors describe the current state of leadership in school psychology and identify the competencies needed for school psychologists to lead social change. The authors also discuss the barriers to traditional leadership opportunities for racially and ethnically minoritized individuals and the critical need to remove these barriers. Recommendations are provided to facilitate the promotion of social change leadership in school psychology by aligning research, training, and practice.
