Soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks are important indicators of soil condition. However, the extent to which coffee-based land-use systems maintain SOC stocks relative to degraded land is rarely assessed. This study evaluated SOC stocks, selected soil physicochemical properties, and their relationships across four coffee-based land-use systems (coffee monocrop-CM, coffee–banana-CB, coffee–tree-CT, and coffee–tree–banana-CTB) and a degraded reference site in south-central Uganda. Soil samples were collected at 0–30 and 30–60 cm and analyzed using standard laboratory procedures. The effects of land use and soil depth were evaluated using mixed-effects models, while Pearson correlation analysis and principal component analysis (PCA) were used to examine relationships among soil properties and identify multivariate patterns across land-use systems. Across both soil depths, all coffee-based land-use systems had significantly (p < 0.05) higher SOC stocks than the degraded reference system, whereas differences among coffee-based systems were not statistically significant (p > 0.05). SOC stocks averaged 95–104 t C ha−1 in the 0–30 cm layer and 174–191 t C ha−1 in the 30–60 cm layer under coffee systems, compared with 48 and 95 t C ha−1, respectively, in the degraded reference system. SOC concentration was strongly correlated with SOC stocks (r = 0.90–0.93), and coffee-based systems were associated with higher SOC-related attributes, whereas degraded sites were characterized by higher bulk density and sand content. These findings indicate that maintaining perennial coffee-based land-use systems may be more important for SOC conservation than simply increasing structural complexity of coffee systems. The results provide evidence to support sustainable coffee land management for improved soil health in degraded coffee landscapes.
Coffee agroforestry systems (CAFS) are multifunctional land-use systems that simultaneously support agricultural production, biodiversity conservation, and ecosystem services provision. However, comparative understanding of how ecological, market, and governance contexts shape ecological-socioeconomic trade-offs and transition pathways remains limited. This study conducted a PRISMA 2020-guided systematic review of peer-reviewed literature comparing CAFS in Ethiopia, the center of origin of Coffee arabica, and Yunnan, China, the countries principal coffee producing region. Evidence was synthesized across four analytical dimensions: ecological structure, ecosystem service, market organization and governance regimes. Ethiopian CAFS are characterized by high ecological complexity, storing up to 320 Mg C ha−1 under native shade, but are constrained by fragmented value chains, and limited institutional support. In contrast, Chinese CAFS follow demonstrate strong governance and market integration, resulting in rapid ecosystem recovery, including a 64
American elderberry (Sambucus nigra subsp. canadensis) is an increasingly popular specialty crop, primarily grown in North America for use of flowers and fruits in dietary supplements and foods. Elderberry is a versatile shrubby species, with excellent utility in a variety of agroforestry systems, and provides important ecosystem services. Little is known about the genetic diversity of American elderberry, especially in terms of horticultural attributes and beneficial metabolites. A previous project sampled wild germplasm from the eastern and midwestern United States. Fruit from these samples was analyzed for polyphenol profiles, after which propagules of accessions of interest were collected for further study. Eighteen geographically diverse accessions, along with three standard cultivars, were brought into replicated, randomized, common-garden plantings in southwest Missouri, USA. The objective was to assess genetic diversity, breeding potential, and genetic and environmental influences on polyphenol profiles. Horticultural data were quantified across four years, and fruit samples were analyzed for polyphenol profile over two years. Most horticultural parameters varied significantly across factors of genotype, site, and year. Among genotypes, budbreak varied 32 days and peak flowering ranged 21 days. Plant height also showed considerable variation among genotypes, ranging from 0.96–1.84 m. Noting that the accessions were selected for phytochemical diversity rather than horticultural potential, fruit yields ranged from 0.72–5.88 kg/plot (plot = 2.23 m2, containing two plants). Among five anthocyanins and seven flavonols / phenylpropanoids quantified, statistical differences in metabolite production were found among genotypes in all cases. This snapshot of the genetic diversity among horticultural and metabolomic factors within American elderberry underscores the potential for breeders to select various traits of interest as the crop continues to develop.
The Himalayan ecosystem is one of the most delicate ecosystems that requires site-specific planning to balance agricultural intensification with ecological conservation. Agroforestry provides a practical means to achieve this balance; however, its expansion is often constrained by the absence of robust, spatially explicit suitability assessments. Therefore, the current study employed 11 biophysical and socio-economic variables in two independent models, namely, the knowledge-based Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) and the data-driven Random Forest (RF), to assess agroforestry suitability and develop a spatially explicit management framework for Kangra District in the Northwestern Himalayas, India. The results indicated that the two models produced contrasting outcomes. The AHP model focused on biophysical and land-use limitations, with 61.36
Agroforestry enhances livestock-based agricultural systems by supplying nutritious fodder and strengthening overall system resilience. In India, tribal communities rely heavily on livestock for their livelihoods, making fodder preference crucial for sustaining productivity. However, systematic documentation of indigenous knowledge alongside scientific validation of fodder species remains limited. The present study, conducted in the Chamba district of Himachal Pradesh, aimed to document the fodder species preferred by the Gujjar tribe, assess their nutritional value, and examine the relationship between farmers' preferences and nutritional attributes using data collected through semi-structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, and laboratory analysis. A total of 25 fodder species were identified, including trees, cultivated fodder crops, grasses, herbs, and shrubs. Grewia optiva ranked highest in preference, followed by Celtis australis, Robinia pseudoacacia, Zea mays and Quercus leucotrichophora. Nutritional analysis showed that dry matter content ranged from 21.74 to 55.12
Complex cocoa agroforestry systems (AFS) may store carbon while sustaining production, but net climate assessment requires carbon pools, management-related emissions, and yield to be evaluated in the same farms. We quantified these components in 33 cocoa AFS in Arauca and Meta, Colombian Orinoquía, and tested whether structural–functional typologies differed in age-normalized CO2 removals, greenhouse gas emissions, and dry-bean yield. Biomass was estimated from tree inventories and allometric equations; leaf litter, necromass, and soil organic carbon were sampled in field plots. Biomass, litter, and necromass stocks were divided by system age and converted to CO2 equivalents as cross-sectional annualized indicators. Management emissions were estimated from fertilizer, amendment, and fossil-fuel use. Principal component analysis followed by hierarchical clustering on principal components identified four typologies: cocoa-dominant/high-input, low-density/extensive, high-density/balanced-canopy, and shade-dominant/species-rich. The shade-dominant/species-rich group had the highest annualized removal indicator (37.34 ± 4.03 t CO2eq ha⁻1 year⁻1), whereas the cocoa-dominant/high-input group had the highest emissions (2.72 ± 0.63 t CO2eq ha⁻1 year⁻1). Mean yield did not differ significantly among typologies (632–938 kg dry beans ha⁻1 year⁻1), although the smallest group contained only three farms. All groups had positive post-establishment balances when biomass, litter, and necromass indicators were offset against management emissions. These balances exclude soil carbon change and land-use-change emissions; therefore, they describe the sampled AFS rather than full life-cycle mitigation.
This systematic review and meta analyses synthesizes evidence from over 900 scientific studies to examine the current state, opportunities, and constraints of agroforestry as a multifunctional land-use strategy in India. Drawing on peer-reviewed literature, the review evaluates ecosystem services frameworks encompassing seven distinct subsets: soil enrichment, water resources, biodiversity conservation, microclimate regulation, climate change mitigation, food and nutritional security, and livelihood enhancement. The study highlights agroforestry’s significant contributions to environmental sustainability and rural development. Evidence shows that agroforestry can improve soil organic carbon by up to 39
Profitability analysis plays a central role in evaluating agricultural investments and informing rural development policy. However, most financial assessments of smallholder farming systems rely on conventional discounted cash-flow techniques such as net present value (NPV), which assume fixed decision pathways and ignore managerial flexibility under uncertainty. Agroforestry (AF) investments are characterized by long production horizons, biological growth dynamics, volatile product markets, and flexible management options over time. These characteristics limit the ability of conventional financial appraisal methods to capture the true economic value of AF systems. This study applies a real options valuation (ROV) framework using a binomial option pricing model (BOPM) to evaluate the profitability of smallholder AF investments in the Amhara region of Ethiopia. The analysis focuses on three commonly adopted tree-based systems: Acacia decurrens woodlots, Yushania alpina (highland bamboo) plantations, and Eucalyptus globulus woodlots. Using farm-level production, financial data, and market information collected from smallholders, conventional discounted cash-flow analysis is compared with option-based valuation results. The findings indicate that incorporating managerial flexibility significantly increases and changes the estimated economic value of AF investments relative to traditional NPV estimates. The results also highlight the importance of uncertainty in product prices, biological growth variability, and farmer decision flexibility when evaluating long-term tree-based investments. The study proposes seven (7) methodological guidelines for applying ROV in smallholder AF contexts, including practical approaches for estimating volatility, selecting discount rates, and structuring option decision trees. By adopting this customized BOPM, practitioners can better quantify the options for optimal market prices, significantly increasing the risk-adjusted returns for smallholder AF investment systems.
Agrivoltaic systems, combining solar energy generation with agricultural activities, offer a sustainable approach to maximising land efficiency. However, these systems can present challenges, such as potential shading effects that may impact fruit quality or crop yields. This study evaluated the impact of overhead agrivoltaic systems on apple (Malus domestica L. cv. Gala) ripening and maturation patterns in a temperate orchard near Lake Constance, Germany. Experiments compared apples grown under conventional conditions (control) with those under agrivoltaic setups equipped with semi-transparent photovoltaic panels utilizing spatially distributed cells for 40
This study aimed to characterize greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes in different cocoa production systems and correlate them with soil quality attributes in the Atlantic Forest biome. The research was conducted in the experimental area of the Executive Commission of the Cocoa Farming Plan (CEPLAC) in Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil. The land-use systems analyzed were full-sun cocoa with Fabaceae cover crops (CFs); full-sun cocoa with Urochloa decumbens cover crops (CBs); full-sun cocoa with spontaneous vegetation cover (CVE); an agroforestry cocoa system of the cabruca type (SAFCAB); an agroforestry cocoa system with rubber trees (SAFSE); and a natural forest (FOREST). GHG flux monitoring was carried out twice in 2022 using the static chamber method. The chambers were constructed from plastic buckets, and the internal volume of each chamber was previously measured to enable the calculation of gas fluxes. Soil samples were collected at 0–0.10 m depth for the analysis of ammonium (NH4+), nitrate (NO3−), soil bulk density, soil moisture, and water-filled pore space (WFPS). Gas samples were collected using a manual vacuum sampling pump, and the gas was transferred to storage vials and subsequently transported to the laboratory, where GHG concentrations were determined by gas chromatography. Negative CH4 fluxes were recorded in the CF, CVE, and SAFCAB systems during the high-rainfall period, with mean values of − 4.08, − 0.98, and − 5.98 mg m−2 h−1, respectively. The forest showed a positive flux of 6.50 mg m−2 h−1. Regarding CO2, SAFCAB and the forest presented the highest mean fluxes, 1.13 and 0.70 g m−2 h−1. CVE showed the lowest value, 0.49 g m−2 h−1. All cultivated systems emitted N2. O into the atmosphere, with no evidence of gas uptake. Among the agroforestry systems, SAFSE presented the lowest GHG fluxes, while SAFCAB showed unexpectedly elevated CO2 emissions attributed to litter accumulation and microclimatic conditions favorable to organic matter decomposition. These findings provide new insights into how cocoa management systems influence soil GHG dynamics and highlight the contrasting environmental profiles of different agroforestry arrangements in tropical cocoa landscapes.
Riverine agroforestry is a dynamic farming system along riverbanks that contributes to climate-resilient agriculture; however, trees often exert strong negative interactions with crops through light interception due to their dense, persistent canopies. This study quantified the effects of bund trees (i.e., Acacia nilotica, Butea monosperma, Mangifera indica, Terminalia arjuna, and Terminalia tomentosa) on paddy (Oryza sativa L.) yield in the Lilagar River bank of Chhattisgarh, Central India. More specifically, the effects of tree diameter and stem density of the most dominant tree species, such as T. arjuna, were assessed. The assessment was made using 1 m2 quadrats established at different distances (i.e., 2, 8, 15, and 25 m) from bund tree bases. A total of 480 trees and 3,840 sample plots were assessed using a nested, stratified, and systematic sampling design. Tree species, diameter, density, and distance significantly affected rice yield (p < 0.01). Mean annual grain yield increased from 3.64 t ha⁻1 at 2 m to 5.52 t ha⁻1 at 25 m distance, indicating a 34
The systematic analysis of power remains a challenge in agroforestry scholarship. This gap persists despite considerable evidence that power–actor–centred, structural, and discursive–shapes not only who designs and implements agroforestry, but also the outcomes produced and how they are distributed. Here, I introduce critical agroforestry as a concept and approach to integrate power analysis into the study of diverse agroforestry technologies, practices and systems. Grounded in social science traditions, critical denotes an approach that explicitly interrogates underlying power structures, dominant ideologies, and structural inequalities. First, I delineate the theoretical foundations of critical agroforestry. The framework operatess on four central principles: agroforestry is politically defined, enacted through contested knowledges, governed by polycentric systems, and mobilized to (re)organize land, labour, value and risk. Next, I analyze how Agroforestry Systems has engaged with issues of power, equity and knowledge from its inception in 1982 to 2025. This involved reviewing 589 predominantly social sciences articles published in the journal. I demonstrate that while the analytical vocabulary used to discuss agroforestry has expanded over time, there has not been a commensurate focus on addressing the embedded power asymmetries that precipitated this expansion. I argue that future research can overcome this limitation by focusing on four intersecting areas: power and governance in polycentric agroforestry systems; knowledge hierarchies and epistemic justice in agroforestry research; labour, land, and livelihood rights across agroforestry value chains; and participatory methodologies and the co-production of agroforestry knowledge. More broadly, centering future agroforestry research and praxis on power will enable us to not merely ask whether agroforestry works, but for whom, on whose terms, and with what consequences for the structural inequalities that determine who controls, benefits from, or is harmed by agroforestry interventions. I invite researchers, practitioners, and grassroots organizations to join forces in advancing critical agroforestry as a unified political and technical endeavor.
Agroforestry systems represent a multifunctional land-use approach capable of enhancing numerous ecosystem services, including biodiversity, soil conservation, and climate resilience, as well as promoting farm income diversification by fostering sustainable quality production. However, despite active policy support since 2007 under the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), their adoption in Italy remains limited. This study investigates the reasons behind the low uptake of agroforestry measures across three CAP programming periods through a sequential mixed-method design. It begins with a financial and policy analysis to delineate the implementation framework, followed by survey-based econometric modeling to explore behavioural and institutional factors involved.The financial analysis reveals a narrow implementation framework and low expenditure levels, with only a few regions effectively activating the agroforestry measures. The survey results further highlight the behavioural and institutional constraints shaping participation: awareness, technical capacity, and direct experience are associated with a higher willingness to apply, whereas limited knowledge, bureaucratic complexity, and perceived inadequacy of financial support are frequently reported as key barriers. Strengthening training, communication, and policy coherence could therefore promote agroforestry adoption in future CAP cycles.
Melientha suavis Pierre Forest farming is a farmer-managed, multifunctional agroforestry practice that integrates food production, supplementary cash income, and locally valued ecosystem services within smallholder landholdings in Thailand. This study investigated how plant species diversity and functional use intensity are structured and utilized in eight purposively selected, long-established (> 10 years) M. suavis agroforestry farms located in two contrasting production regions: Saraburi Province (central, market-integrated lowlands) and Lamphun Province (northern orchard–forest mosaic). Data were collected through participatory observation, semi-structured interviews, and complete plant inventories. All recorded species were assigned to nine functional-use categories, and a Utilization Index (UI) was calculated to quantify both the breadth of species uses and farm-level utilization intensity. Individual farms contained 11–48 plant species, with more than 100 species recorded across all sites, and were dominated by food and medicinal/herbal plants. Species richness was positively associated with UI, indicating higher utilization intensity in more diverse farms. Saraburi farms tended to exhibit a more even distribution of functional groups, whereas Lamphun farms showed higher utilization concentrated in a smaller number of key species. Farmers reported multiple benefits, including improved access to diverse foods and medicinal plants, supplementary income, and regulating functions such as shade provision, microclimate buffering, and soil protection. Collectively, these findings suggest that farmer-managed plant diversity contributes to the multifunctionality of mature M. suavis agroforestry systems across contrasting socio-ecological contexts in Thailand.
Cocoa agroforestry systems are recognized for their potential to reconcile agricultural production with climate change mitigation, yet the mechanisms governing carbon storage across environmental gradients remain poorly understood. Here, we examined above- and belowground carbon stocks of cocoa and shade trees as well as soil organic carbon (SOC) in smallholder cocoa agroforestry systems across dry, intermediate (mid), and wet climatic zones in Ghana. Despite pronounced differences in shade tree density, size, and species richness, shade-tree aboveground carbon stocks (108–147 Mg C ha−1) as well as total farm-level carbon stocks were comparable across the climatic gradient (from dry to wet), with no negative effect on cocoa yield, signifying trade-offs in the structural characteristics of shade trees driven by management. Cocoa tree carbon and SOC stocks varied across the climatic zones but individually contributed less to ecosystem carbon stocks. Cocoa tree carbon stocks were highest in the mid climatic zone (41 Mg C ha−1) compared to 22 Mg C ha−1 for the dry and 27 Mg C ha−1 for the wet zone, reflecting the older cocoa tree stands and larger stem diameters of the mid zone. SOC was lower in the dry zone than in the mid and wet zones, by 23 and 27
Vanilla planifolia cultivation by Totonac people in the ancestral Tajin region represents historical and cultural richness of Mexico. Nowadays, four agroforestry systems are developed for the orchid’s production, that vary in the natural support and technification: “acahual” (reforested system), shade house (rustic greenhouse), co-culture under orange trees (Citrus sinensis L.), and with local “pichoco” plant (Erythrina spp.). This study focused on evaluating various attributes of these systems. We conducted semi-structured interviews and field evaluations to learn about the management practices. The variables were analyzed using an amoeba diagram and hierarchical grouping analysis. The shade house system is the most technical and the one that obtained the best yields. The orange tree system allows the vanilla to be in better handling conditions. Finally, “acahual” and “pichoco” are more vulnerable to diseases and environmental changes, related to poor forest management due to Totonac cultural erosion.
Agricultural expansion, combined with poor soil management, can result in soil degradation, erosion, and nutrient depletion. Agroforestry systems (AFS) are sustainable alternatives that promote soil health, conserve biodiversity, and increase productive resilience. This study aimed to evaluate the physical, chemical, and biological attributes of soils under AFS and forests (FOR) in Paraty, Rio de Janeiro, located in the Atlantic Forest biome. In each area, mini-trenches were opened to collect five composite samples at 0–10 cm, with four replicates for chemical, physical, and biological analyses. Ecological similarities were observed between the AFS and FOR systems. While AFS was associated with fertility-related attributes and FOR with organic matter content, the biological components showed comparable patterns. Macrofaunal composition, β-glucosidase activity, abundance of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, and glomalin-related soil protein did not markedly differ between the systems. Only arylsulfatase levels were increased in the AFS group. The AFS maintained soil biological integrity, with fungal and bacterial communities exhibiting structures and diversities similar to those observed in the FOR. The fungal class Eurotiomycetes stood out in the AFS due to its higher abundance, while the families and genera Melanommataceae, Hygrophoraceae, Memnoniella, Hygrocybe, Myxarium, and Byssosphaeria were also enriched in this system. In bacterial communities, the class Acidobacteriae was more abundant in FOR, reflecting the influence of soil pH on bacterial composition. Overall, the evaluated AFS demonstrated potential as a strategy for ecological intensification and environmental conservation by maintaining soil and biological attributes comparable to those observed in the forest area while simultaneously enhancing soil fertility.
While agroforestry is known to stabilize West African cereal yields, the comparative impacts of specific shrub species and management practices remain under-researched. We assessed the influence of P. reticulatum (DC.) Hochst. and G. senegalensis on sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) productivity, soil labile carbon, and macrofauna in northern Burkina Faso, using data from 252 long-established, farmer-managed subplots. By sampling across these multi-year cropping systems over two years, we captured the legacy effects of five distinct management strategies: an open-field control, (T0), coppiced P. reticulatum (T1), coppiced G. senegalensis (T2), unpruned P. reticulatum (T3), open-field mulched with a shrub mixture (T4). Shrub proximity significantly enhances both yield and soil health, even when coppicing biomass are exported in T1 and T2. P. reticulatum (T1) outperformed G. senegalensis (T2) in both grain and straw yields though soil labile carbon did not differ significantly between species. Standard coppicing (T1) represents a viable strategic compromise, allowing farmers to harvest essential wood and fodder without significantly compromising soil health or cereal productivity. Mulching in open fields (T4) achieved the highest overall performance, but high labor requirements may have limited local adoption. Despite these benefits, the dominance of just two shrub species signals a critical biodiversity bottleneck with potential long-term risks. Overall, a diversified mosaic of shrub management practices, particularly strategic coppicing of shrubs, offers a practical pathway for farmers to sustain yields while reinforcing soil health and ecosystem resilience.
Knowledge of the spatiotemporal distribution of forest carbon (C) stocks is essential for designing strategies that address global environmental change. Here, we developed a transparent framework to establish a 2016–2021 baseline for quantifying, monitoring, and reporting greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions and removal enhancements in native forests embedded within grazed dairy systems in southern Chile. We integrated data from 107 forest inventory plots with Sentinel-2 multispectral imagery and implemented a Random Forest regression model on the Google Earth Engine cloud platform. Our results indicate that native forests across the six study sites store a total of 113,751.4 Mg C, with a mean of 157.7 Mg C ha−1. The mean annual increase in C stock between 2016 and 2021 was 3.2 Mg C ha−1 yr−1, corresponding to a total gain of 12,598.3 Mg C (46,194 Mg CO₂eq). Model performance was high, with R2 = 0.93 and RMSE = 22.9 Mg C ha−1, indicating robust agreement between observed and predicted values. The approach proposed in this study provides a robust, transparent, and replicable methodology for measuring and monitoring carbon stocks in Chile’s native forests. This methodological framework can be used to derive baseline estimates of additional GHG emissions and removals and may support the development of scientifically sound forest carbon projects in dairy landscapes.
